diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java index fbc095909541..e10559ae8a65 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/audiofilters/IIRFilter.java @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ /** * N-Order IIR Filter Assumes inputs are normalized to [-1, 1] - * + *

* Based on the difference equation from * Wikipedia link */ diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java index 269880b8ddae..3471983f9c81 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.java @@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ public class AllPathsFromSourceToTarget { private final int v; // To store the paths from source to destination - static List> nm = new ArrayList<>(); + static final List> nm = new ArrayList<>(); // adjacency list private ArrayList[] adjList; diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java index 6bfb026c7de9..a08e864601a2 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/CrosswordSolver.java @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ * {' ', ' ', ' '} * } * words = List.of("cat", "dog") - * + *

* Output: * { * {'c', 'a', 't'}, diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java index 2c2da659f3aa..d2402151c45e 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/KnightsTour.java @@ -6,12 +6,12 @@ /** * The KnightsTour class solves the Knight's Tour problem using backtracking. - * + *

* Problem Statement: * Given an N*N board with a knight placed on the first block, the knight must * move according to chess rules and visit each square on the board exactly once. * The class outputs the sequence of moves for the knight. - * + *

* Example: * Input: N = 8 (8x8 chess board) * Output: The sequence of numbers representing the order in which the knight visits each square. diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java index d0188dfd13aa..647ab4807302 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoring.java @@ -10,11 +10,11 @@ * Node class represents a graph node. Each node is associated with a color * (initially 1) and contains a set of edges representing its adjacent nodes. * - * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi) + * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...) */ class Node { int color = 1; // Initial color for each node - Set edges = new HashSet(); // Set of edges representing adjacent nodes + final Set edges = new HashSet(); // Set of edges representing adjacent nodes } /** @@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ static boolean isColoringPossible(ArrayList nodes, int n, int m) { q.add(sv); // Perform BFS to process all nodes and their adjacent nodes - while (q.size() != 0) { + while (!q.isEmpty()) { int top = q.peek(); // Get the current node from the queue q.remove(); diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java index 8247172e7ee0..515b36d57562 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MazeRecursion.java @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ * This class contains methods to solve a maze using recursive backtracking. * The maze is represented as a 2D array where walls, paths, and visited/dead * ends are marked with different integers. - * + *

* The goal is to find a path from a starting position to the target position * (map[6][5]) while navigating through the maze. */ diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java index 404f677738a0..9b80256b3a45 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/NQueens.java @@ -10,21 +10,21 @@ * which N queens can be placed on the board such no two queens attack each * other. Ex. N = 6 Solution= There are 4 possible ways Arrangement: 1 ".Q....", * "...Q..", ".....Q", "Q.....", "..Q...", "....Q." - * + *

* Arrangement: 2 "..Q...", ".....Q", ".Q....", "....Q.", "Q.....", "...Q.." - * + *

* Arrangement: 3 "...Q..", "Q.....", "....Q.", ".Q....", ".....Q", "..Q..." - * + *

* Arrangement: 4 "....Q.", "..Q...", "Q.....", ".....Q", "...Q..", ".Q...." - * + *

* Solution: Brute Force approach: - * + *

* Generate all possible arrangement to place N queens on N*N board. Check each * board if queens are placed safely. If it is safe, include arrangement in * solution set. Otherwise, ignore it - * + *

* Optimized solution: This can be solved using backtracking in below steps - * + *

* Start with first column and place queen on first row Try placing queen in a * row on second column If placing second queen in second column attacks any of * the previous queens, change the row in second column otherwise move to next diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java index b34ba660ebd7..67dd000636ee 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PowerSum.java @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ * of unique, natural numbers. * For example, if N=100 and X=3, we have to find all combinations of unique cubes adding up to 100. * The only solution is 1^3 + 2^3 + 3^3 + 4^3. Therefore, the output will be 1. - * + *

* N is represented by the parameter 'targetSum' in the code. * X is represented by the parameter 'power' in the code. */ diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutation.java index 4804e247ab03..9f282b76d33d 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutation.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutation.java @@ -6,11 +6,11 @@ /** * Generates all UNIQUE permutations of a string, even when duplicate characters exist. - * + *

* Example: * Input: "AAB" * Output: ["AAB", "ABA", "BAA"] - * + *

* Time Complexity: O(n! * n) */ public final class UniquePermutation { diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java index 1854cab20a7f..fbf53bffcca2 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordPatternMatcher.java @@ -5,16 +5,16 @@ /** * Class to determine if a pattern matches a string using backtracking. - * + *

* Example: * Pattern: "abab" * Input String: "JavaPythonJavaPython" * Output: true - * + *

* Pattern: "aaaa" * Input String: "JavaJavaJavaJava" * Output: true - * + *

* Pattern: "aabb" * Input String: "JavaPythonPythonJava" * Output: false diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java index 452f17b6ace6..ddb8b8baf4d6 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/WordSearch.java @@ -2,12 +2,12 @@ /** * Word Search Problem - * + *

* This class solves the word search problem where given an m x n grid of characters (board) * and a target word, the task is to check if the word exists in the grid. * The word can be constructed from sequentially adjacent cells (horizontally or vertically), * and the same cell may not be used more than once in constructing the word. - * + *

* Example: * - For board = * [ @@ -18,19 +18,19 @@ * and word = "ABCCED", -> returns true * and word = "SEE", -> returns true * and word = "ABCB", -> returns false - * + *

* Solution: * - Depth First Search (DFS) with backtracking is used to explore possible paths from any cell * matching the first letter of the word. DFS ensures that we search all valid paths, while * backtracking helps in reverting decisions when a path fails to lead to a solution. - * + *

* Time Complexity: O(m * n * 3^L) * - m = number of rows in the board * - n = number of columns in the board * - L = length of the word * - For each cell, we look at 3 possible directions (since we exclude the previously visited direction), * and we do this for L letters. - * + *

* Space Complexity: O(L) * - Stack space for the recursive DFS function, where L is the maximum depth of recursion (length of the word). */ diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java index e6bd35720d9f..75d4e8300757 100644 --- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java +++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/BcdConversion.java @@ -2,12 +2,12 @@ /** * This class provides methods to convert between BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) and decimal numbers. - * + *

* BCD is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed number of binary digits, usually four or eight. - * + *

* For more information, refer to the * Binary-Coded Decimal Wikipedia page. - * + *

* Example usage: * 

  * int decimal = BcdConversion.bcdToDecimal(0x1234);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java
index 3e9a4a21183f..9ecf1eda1e6d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ClearLeftmostSetBit.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * ClearLeftmostSetBit class contains a method to clear the leftmost set bit of a number.
  * The leftmost set bit is the leftmost bit that is set to 1 in the binary representation of a number.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * 26 (11010) -> 10 (01010)
  * 1 (1) -> 0 (0)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java
index 8d2c757e5e0a..97f381ff87f5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/CountBitsFlip.java
@@ -2,16 +2,16 @@
 
 /**
  * Implementation to count number of bits to be flipped to convert A to B
- *
+ * 

  * Problem: Given two numbers A and B, count the number of bits needed to be
  * flipped to convert A to B.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * A = 10 (01010 in binary)
  * B = 20 (10100 in binary)
  * XOR = 30 (11110 in binary) - positions where bits differ
  * Answer: 4 bits need to be flipped
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(log n) - where n is the number of set bits
  * Space Complexity: O(1)
  *
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ private CountBitsFlip() {
 
     /**
      * Counts the number of bits that need to be flipped to convert a to b
-     *
+     * 

      * Algorithm:
      * 1. XOR a and b to get positions where bits differ
      * 2. Count the number of set bits in the XOR result
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java
index 9a761c572e2c..b9f8c0d6d43e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/FirstDifferentBit.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * This class provides a method to find the first differing bit
  * between two integers.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  *  x = 10 (1010 in binary)
  *  y = 12 (1100 in binary)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java
index 2398b8214371..a0e26f4cb2ff 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBit.java
@@ -4,12 +4,12 @@
 
 /**
  * Find Highest Set Bit
- *
+ * 

  * This class provides a utility method to calculate the position of the highest
  * (most significant) bit that is set to 1 in a given non-negative integer.
  * It is often used in bit manipulation tasks to find the left-most set bit in binary
  * representation of a number.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * - For input 18 (binary 10010), the highest set bit is at position 4 (zero-based index).
  *
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ private HighestSetBit() {
     /**
      * Finds the highest (most significant) set bit in the given integer.
      * The method returns the position (index) of the highest set bit as an {@link Optional}.
-     *
+     * 

      * - If the number is 0, no bits are set, and the method returns {@link Optional#empty()}.
      * - If the number is negative, the method throws {@link IllegalArgumentException}.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java
index 1b8962344ea7..cfb3837ed42d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBit.java
@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@
  * Specifically, it includes a method to find the index of the rightmost set bit
  * in an integer.
  * This class is not meant to be instantiated.
- *
- * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * 

+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhando(https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
  */
 public final class IndexOfRightMostSetBit {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java
index 09d5383322ff..234458aa41c0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsEven.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Checks whether a number is even
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 public final class IsEven {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java
index 4cdf3c6faa3e..6807f34a6e07 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwo.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
  * A power of two is a number that can be expressed as 2^n where n is a non-negative integer.
  * This class provides a method to determine if a given integer is a power of two using bit manipulation.
  *
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 public final class IsPowerTwo {
     private IsPowerTwo() {
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ private IsPowerTwo() {
 
     /**
      * Checks if the given integer is a power of two.
-     *
+     * 

      * A number is considered a power of two if it is greater than zero and
      * has exactly one '1' bit in its binary representation. This method
      * uses the property that for any power of two (n), the expression
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java
index 127b6fa2c0b1..3b4d148a5cb9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBit.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Lowest Set Bit
- * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (...)
  */
 
 public final class LowestSetBit {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java
index 17e1a73ec062..e167f94a06a6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinder.java
@@ -3,17 +3,17 @@
 /**
  * A utility class to find the non-repeating number in an array where every other number repeats.
  * This class contains a method to identify the single unique number using bit manipulation.
- *
+ * 

  * The solution leverages the properties of the XOR operation, which states that:
  * - x ^ x = 0 for any integer x (a number XORed with itself is zero)
  * - x ^ 0 = x for any integer x (a number XORed with zero is the number itself)
- *
+ * 

  * Using these properties, we can find the non-repeating number in linear time with constant space.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Given the input array [2, 3, 5, 2, 3], the output will be 5 since it does not repeat.
  *
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan...ranChhandogi)
  */
 public final class NonRepeatingNumberFinder {
     private NonRepeatingNumberFinder() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java
index bd4868d4dbd5..88d5f051bd72 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumberAppearingOddTimes.java
@@ -4,20 +4,20 @@
  * This class provides a method to find the element that appears an
  * odd number of times in an array. All other elements in the array
  * must appear an even number of times for the logic to work.
- *
+ * 

  * The solution uses the XOR operation, which has the following properties:
  * - a ^ a = 0 (XOR-ing the same numbers cancels them out)
  * - a ^ 0 = a
  * - XOR is commutative and associative.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the size of the array.
  * Space Complexity: O(1), as no extra space is used.
- *
+ * 

  * Usage Example:
  * int result = NumberAppearingOddTimes.findOddOccurrence(new int[]{1, 2, 1, 2, 3});
  * // result will be 3
  *
- * @author Lakshyajeet Singh Goyal (https://github.com/DarkMatter-999)
+ * @author Lakshyajeet SGoyal (https://github.com/DarkMatter-999)
  */
 
 public final class NumberAppearingOddTimes {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java
index a2da37aa81ee..128775dba000 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NumbersDifferentSigns.java
@@ -3,11 +3,11 @@
 /**
  * This class provides a method to determine whether two integers have
  * different signs. It utilizes the XOR operation on the two numbers:
- *
+ * 

  * - If two numbers have different signs, their most significant bits
  *   (sign bits) will differ, resulting in a negative XOR result.
  * - If two numbers have the same sign, the XOR result will be non-negative.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(1) - Constant time operation.
  * Space Complexity: O(1) - No extra space used.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java
index afec0188e299..3324cb1fef73 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OneBitDifference.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * This class provides a method to detect if two integers
  * differ by exactly one bit flip.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * 1 (0001) and 2 (0010) differ by exactly one bit flip.
  * 7 (0111) and 3 (0011) differ by exactly one bit flip.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java
index aae3a996e49d..97908141618b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplement.java
@@ -1,8 +1,8 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.bitmanipulation;
 
 /**
- * @author - https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma
- * @Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ones%27_complement
+ * @author - ...
+ * @Wikipedia - ...
  *            The class OnesComplement computes the complement of binary number
  *            and returns
  *            the complemented binary string.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java
index 12c269d9be48..56c97e7322d3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/ReverseBits.java
@@ -4,14 +4,14 @@
  * This class provides a method to reverse the bits of a 32-bit integer.
  * Reversing the bits means that the least significant bit (LSB) becomes
  * the most significant bit (MSB) and vice versa.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Input (binary): 00000010100101000001111010011100 (43261596)
  * Output (binary): 00111001011110000010100101000000 (964176192)
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(32) - A fixed number of 32 iterations
  * Space Complexity: O(1) - No extra space used
- *
+ * 

  * Note:
  * - If the input is negative, Java handles it using two’s complement representation.
  * - This function works on 32-bit integers by default.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java
index 624a4e2b858a..98f5d867777a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SingleBitOperations.java
@@ -4,19 +4,19 @@
  * A utility class for performing single-bit operations on integers.
  * These operations include flipping, setting, clearing, and getting
  * individual bits at specified positions.
- *
+ * 

  * Bit positions are zero-indexed (i.e., the least significant bit is at position 0).
  * These methods leverage bitwise operations for optimal performance.
- *
+ * 

  * Examples:
  * - `flipBit(3, 1)` flips the bit at index 1 in binary `11` (result: `1`).
  * - `setBit(4, 0)` sets the bit at index 0 in `100` (result: `101` or 5).
  * - `clearBit(7, 1)` clears the bit at index 1 in `111` (result: `101` or 5).
  * - `getBit(6, 0)` checks if the least significant bit is set (result: `0`).
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(1) for all operations.
- *
- * Author: lukasb1b (https://github.com/lukasb1b)
+ * 

+ * Aulukasb1b (https://github.com/lukasb1b)
  */
 public final class SingleBitOperations {
     private SingleBitOperations() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java
index 98a7de8bdf1a..694acea67d36 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/SwapAdjacentBits.java
@@ -3,11 +3,11 @@
 /**
  * A utility class to swap every pair of adjacent bits in a given integer.
  * This operation shifts the even-positioned bits to odd positions and vice versa.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * - Input: 2 (binary: `10`) → Output: 1 (binary: `01`)
  * - Input: 43 (binary: `101011`) → Output: 23 (binary: `010111`)
- *
+ * 

  * **Explanation of the Algorithm:**
  * 1. Mask even-positioned bits: Using `0xAAAAAAAA` (binary: `101010...`),
  *    which selects bits in even positions.
@@ -17,13 +17,13 @@
  *    - Right-shift even-positioned bits by 1 to move them to odd positions.
  *    - Left-shift odd-positioned bits by 1 to move them to even positions.
  * 4. Combine both shifted results using bitwise OR (`|`) to produce the final result.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: This algorithm can be useful in applications involving low-level bit manipulation,
  * such as encoding, data compression, or cryptographic transformations.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(1) (constant time, since operations are bitwise).
- *
- * Author: Lakshyajeet Singh Goyal (https://github.com/DarkMatter-999)
+ * 

+ * Author: LakshSingh Goyal (https://github.com/DarkMatter-999)
  */
 public final class SwapAdjacentBits {
     private SwapAdjacentBits() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java
index 9b8cecd791a6..146a3cf5cb4c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplement.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
  *
  * 
Algorithm originally suggested by Jon von Neumann.
  *
- * @author Abhinay Verma (https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma)
+ * @author Abhinay Verma (...)
  */
 public final class TwosComplement {
     private TwosComplement() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java
index b22abc0c04ff..1b8a1b7252eb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/Xs3Conversion.java
@@ -2,12 +2,12 @@
 
 /**
  * This class provides methods to convert between XS-3 (Excess-3) and binary.
- *
+ * 

  * Excess-3, also called XS-3, is a binary-coded decimal (BCD) code in which each decimal digit is represented by its corresponding 4-bit binary value plus 3.
- *
+ * 

  * For more information, refer to the
  * Excess-3 Wikipedia page.
- *
+ * 

  * Example usage:
  * 
  * int binary = Xs3Conversion.xs3ToBinary(0x4567);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java
index 979f18532eaa..c12907088ee2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AffineCipher.java
@@ -3,10 +3,10 @@
 /**
  * The AffineCipher class implements the Affine cipher, a type of monoalphabetic substitution cipher.
  * It encrypts and decrypts messages using a linear transformation defined by the formula:
- *
+ * 

  *     E(x) = (a * x + b) mod m
  *     D(y) = a^-1 * (y - b) mod m
- *
+ * 

  * where:
  * - E(x) is the encrypted character,
  * - D(y) is the decrypted character,
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
  * - x is the index of the plaintext character,
  * - y is the index of the ciphertext character,
  * - m is the size of the alphabet (26 for the English alphabet).
- *
+ * 

  * The class provides methods for encrypting and decrypting messages, as well as a main method to demonstrate its usage.
  */
 final class AffineCipher {
@@ -23,8 +23,8 @@ private AffineCipher() {
     }
 
     // Key values of a and b
-    static int a = 17;
-    static int b = 20;
+    static final int a = 17;
+    static final int b = 20;
 
     /**
      * Encrypts a message using the Affine cipher.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java
index 9169aa82bd75..8b9b48dad06d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AtbashCipher.java
@@ -3,14 +3,14 @@
 /**
  * The Atbash cipher is a classic substitution cipher that substitutes each letter
  * with its opposite letter in the alphabet.
- *
+ * 

  * For example:
  * - 'A' becomes 'Z', 'B' becomes 'Y', 'C' becomes 'X', and so on.
  * - Similarly, 'a' becomes 'z', 'b' becomes 'y', and so on.
- *
+ * 

  * The cipher works identically for both uppercase and lowercase letters.
  * Non-alphabetical characters remain unchanged in the output.
- *
+ * 

  * This cipher is symmetric, meaning that applying the cipher twice will return
  * the original text. Therefore, the same function is used for both encryption and decryption.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java
index bb67f512accf..3a07a9328c78 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Autokey.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
  * as it improves upon the classic Vigenère Cipher by using the plaintext itself to
  * extend the key. This makes it harder to break using frequency analysis, as it
  * doesn’t rely solely on a repeated key.
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autokey_cipher
+ * ...
  *
  * @author bennybebo
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java
index 16dfd6e674af..945cc372499a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipher.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * The Baconian Cipher is a substitution cipher where each letter is represented
  * by a group of five binary digits (A's and B's). It can also be used to hide
  * messages within other texts, making it a simple form of steganography.
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon%27s_cipher
+ * ...
  *
  * @author Bennybebo
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java
index ea1807e62710..33439c6c199a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Blowfish.java
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
 public class Blowfish {
 
     // Initializing substitution boxes
-    String[][] sBox = {
+    final String[][] sBox = {
         {
             "d1310ba6",
             "98dfb5ac",
@@ -1047,7 +1047,7 @@ public class Blowfish {
     };
 
     // Initializing subkeys with digits of pi
-    String[] subKeys = {
+    final String[] subKeys = {
         "243f6a88",
         "85a308d3",
         "13198a2e",
@@ -1069,7 +1069,7 @@ public class Blowfish {
     };
 
     // Initializing modVal to 2^32
-    long modVal = 4294967296L;
+    final long modVal = 4294967296L;
 
     /**
      * This method returns binary representation of the hexadecimal number passed as parameter
@@ -1115,7 +1115,7 @@ private String binToHex(String binary) {
      * This method returns a string obtained by XOR-ing two strings of same length passed a method
      * parameters
      *
-     * @param String a and b are string objects which will be XORed and are to be of same length
+     * @param  a and  @param b are string objects which will be XORed and are to be of same length
      * @return String object obtained by XOR operation on String a and String b
      * */
     private String xor(String a, String b) {
@@ -1133,12 +1133,13 @@ private String xor(String a, String b) {
      * This method returns addition of two hexadecimal numbers passed as parameters and moded with
      * 2^32
      *
-     * @param String a and b are hexadecimal numbers
+     * @param  a  hexadecimal number
+     * @param b hexadecimal number
      * @return String object which is a is addition that is then moded with 2^32 of hex numbers
      *     passed as parameters
      */
     private String addBin(String a, String b) {
-        String ans = "";
+        String ans;
         long n1 = Long.parseUnsignedLong(a, 16);
         long n2 = Long.parseUnsignedLong(b, 16);
         n1 = (n1 + n2) % modVal;
@@ -1154,7 +1155,7 @@ private String addBin(String a, String b) {
         */
     private String f(String plainText) {
         String[] a = new String[4];
-        String ans = "";
+        String ans;
         for (int i = 0; i < 8; i += 2) {
             // column number for S-box is a 8-bit value
             long col = Long.parseUnsignedLong(hexToBin(plainText.substring(i, i + 2)), 2);
@@ -1198,8 +1199,8 @@ private String round(int time, String plainText) {
      * This method returns cipher text for the plaintext passed as the first parameter generated
      * using the key passed as the second parameter
      *
-     * @param String plainText is the text which is to be encrypted
-     * @param String key is the key which is to be used for generating cipher text
+     * @param  plainText is the text which is to be encrypted
+     * @param  key is the key which is to be used for generating cipher text
      * @return String cipherText is the encrypted value
      */
     String encrypt(String plainText, String key) {
@@ -1222,8 +1223,8 @@ String encrypt(String plainText, String key) {
      * This method returns plaintext for the ciphertext passed as the first parameter decoded
      * using the key passed as the second parameter
      *
-     * @param String ciphertext is the text which is to be decrypted
-     * @param String key is the key which is to be used for generating cipher text
+     * @param  cipherText is the text which is to be decrypted
+     * @param  key is the key which is to be used for generating cipher text
      * @return String plainText is the decrypted text
      */
     String decrypt(String cipherText, String key) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java
index b6b889b079ca..4bf1d121d498 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipher.java
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ public static String decrypt() {
                 wordDecrypted.append(item);
             }
         }
-        return wordDecrypted.toString().replaceAll(ENCRYPTION_FIELD, "");
+        return wordDecrypted.toString().replace(ENCRYPTION_FIELD, "");
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java
index 7f3eed70f3c2..a8d534b15cd2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/DES.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * This class is build to demonstrate the application of the DES-algorithm
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard) on a plain English message. The supplied
+ * (...) on a plain English message. The supplied
  * key must be in form of a 64 bit binary String.
  */
 public class DES {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java
index 7b1e37f0e1e1..e6225c345bd6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECC.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
  * elliptic curves over finite fields. ECC provides a higher level of security with smaller key sizes compared
  * to other public-key methods like RSA, making it particularly suitable for environments where computational
  * resources are limited, such as mobile devices and embedded systems.
- *
+ * 

  * This class implements elliptic curve cryptography, providing encryption and decryption
  * functionalities based on public and private key pairs.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java
index ce443545db1d..686dfb3e4219 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PermutationCipher.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * A Java implementation of Permutation Cipher.
  * It is a type of transposition cipher in which the plaintext is divided into blocks
  * and the characters within each block are rearranged according to a fixed permutation key.
- *
+ * 

  * For example, with key {3, 1, 2} and plaintext "HELLO", the text is divided into blocks
  * of 3 characters: "HEL" and "LO" (with padding). The characters are then rearranged
  * according to the key positions.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java
index 76ceb6dbce31..003373036e0d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/PlayfairCipher.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 public class PlayfairCipher {
 
     private char[][] matrix;
-    private String key;
+    private final String key;
 
     public PlayfairCipher(String key) {
         this.key = key;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java
index d7eaea757001..01307642562a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ProductCipher.java
@@ -2,72 +2,162 @@
 
 import java.util.Scanner;
 
+/**
+ * ProductCipher combines substitution and transposition ciphers.
+ * Refactoring notes:
+ *  - SRP: encryption, decryption, padding, and I/O are each in their own method.
+ *  - OCP/DIP: SubstitutionCipher and TranspositionCipher implement the Cipher
+ *    interface, so new cipher types can be added without touching existing code.
+ *  - StringBuffer replaced with StringBuilder (thread-safety not needed here).
+ *  - Magic number 5 (Caesar shift) extracted to a named constant.
+ *  - The `n` variable is no longer reused for two different purposes.
+ *  - God-method main() now delegates to focused, testable helpers.
+ */
 final class ProductCipher {
+
     private ProductCipher() {
     }
 
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        try (Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in)) {
-            System.out.println("Enter the input to be encrypted: ");
-            String substitutionInput = sc.nextLine();
-            System.out.println(" ");
-            System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
-            int n = sc.nextInt();
-
-            // Substitution encryption
-            StringBuffer substitutionOutput = new StringBuffer();
-            for (int i = 0; i < substitutionInput.length(); i++) {
-                char c = substitutionInput.charAt(i);
-                substitutionOutput.append((char) (c + 5));
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+    //  Cipher abstraction (Open/Closed + Dependency-Inversion principles) //
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+
+    interface Cipher {
+        String encrypt(String input, int key);
+        String decrypt(String input, int key);
+    }
+
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+    //  Substitution cipher                                                 //
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+
+    static final class SubstitutionCipher implements Cipher {
+
+        private static final int SHIFT = 5;
+
+        @Override
+        public String encrypt(String input, int key) {
+            // `key` is unused for a fixed-shift substitution cipher,
+            // but kept in the signature to satisfy the Cipher contract.
+            StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(input.length());
+            for (char c : input.toCharArray()) {
+                result.append((char) (c + SHIFT));
             }
-            System.out.println(" ");
-            System.out.println("Substituted text: ");
-            System.out.println(substitutionOutput);
-
-            // Transposition encryption
-            String transpositionInput = substitutionOutput.toString();
-            int modulus = transpositionInput.length() % n;
-            if (modulus != 0) {
-                modulus = n - modulus;
-
-                for (; modulus != 0; modulus--) {
-                    transpositionInput += "/";
-                }
+            return result.toString();
+        }
+
+        @Override
+        public String decrypt(String input, int key) {
+            StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(input.length());
+            for (char c : input.toCharArray()) {
+                result.append((char) (c - SHIFT));
+            }
+            return result.toString();
+        }
+    }
+
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+    //  Transposition cipher                                                //
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+
+    static final class TranspositionCipher implements Cipher {
+
+        private static final char PAD_CHAR = '/';
+
+        /** Pad the text so its length is a multiple of {@code numRows}. */
+        String pad(String text, int numRows) {
+            int remainder = text.length() % numRows;
+            if (remainder == 0) {
+                return text;
             }
-            StringBuffer transpositionOutput = new StringBuffer();
-            System.out.println(" ");
+            int paddingNeeded = numRows - remainder;
+            StringBuilder padded = new StringBuilder(text);
+            padded.repeat(String.valueOf(PAD_CHAR), Math.max(0, paddingNeeded));
+            return padded.toString();
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Reads the padded text column-by-column (row-major write, column-major read).
+         * Prints the transposition matrix as a `side effect for traceability.
+         */
+        @Override
+        public String encrypt(String input, int numRows) {
+            String padded = pad(input, numRows);
+            int numCols = padded.length() / numRows;
+
             System.out.println("Transposition Matrix: ");
-            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                for (int j = 0; j < transpositionInput.length() / n; j++) {
-                    char c = transpositionInput.charAt(i + (j * n));
+            StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(padded.length());
+
+            for (int row = 0; row < numRows; row++) {
+                for (int col = 0; col < numCols; col++) {
+                    char c = padded.charAt(row + col * numRows);
                     System.out.print(c);
-                    transpositionOutput.append(c);
+                    result.append(c);
                 }
                 System.out.println();
             }
-            System.out.println(" ");
-            System.out.println("Final encrypted text: ");
-            System.out.println(transpositionOutput);
-
-            // Transposition decryption
-            n = transpositionOutput.length() / n;
-            StringBuffer transpositionPlaintext = new StringBuffer();
-            for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-                for (int j = 0; j < transpositionOutput.length() / n; j++) {
-                    char c = transpositionOutput.charAt(i + (j * n));
-                    transpositionPlaintext.append(c);
+
+            return result.toString();
+        }
+
+        /** Reverses the column-major read by treating the cipher as row-major. */
+        @Override
+        public String decrypt(String input, int numRows) {
+            int numCols = input.length() / numRows;
+            StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder(input.length());
+
+            for (int row = 0; row < numCols; row++) {
+                for (int col = 0; col < numRows; col++) {
+                    result.append(input.charAt(row + col * numCols));
                 }
             }
+            return result.toString();
+        }
+    }
 
-            // Substitution decryption
-            StringBuffer plaintext = new StringBuffer();
-            for (int i = 0; i < transpositionPlaintext.length(); i++) {
-                char c = transpositionPlaintext.charAt(i);
-                plaintext.append((char) (c - 5));
-            }
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+    //  I/O helper (Single-Responsibility: only reads user input)          //
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+
+    private static String readPlaintext(Scanner sc) {
+        System.out.println("Enter the input to be encrypted: ");
+        return sc.nextLine();
+    }
+
+    private static int readKey(Scanner sc) {
+        System.out.println("Enter a number: ");
+        return sc.nextInt();
+    }
+
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+    //  Entry point – thin orchestration only                               //
+    // ------------------------------------------------------------------ //
+
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        Cipher substitution  = new SubstitutionCipher();
+        Cipher transposition = new TranspositionCipher();
+
+        try (Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            String plaintext = readPlaintext(sc);
+            int key          = readKey(sc);
+
+            // Encrypt
+            String afterSubstitution = substitution.encrypt(plaintext, key);
+            System.out.println("\nSubstituted text: ");
+            System.out.println(afterSubstitution);
+
+            System.out.println();
+            String ciphertext = transposition.encrypt(afterSubstitution, key);
+            System.out.println("\nFinal encrypted text: ");
+            System.out.println(ciphertext);
+
+            // Decrypt (use a separate variable; never reuse `key` for a different meaning)
+            int decryptionKey = ciphertext.length() / key;
+            String afterTranspositionDecrypt = transposition.decrypt(ciphertext, decryptionKey);
+            String recovered = substitution.decrypt(afterTranspositionDecrypt, key);
 
             System.out.println("Plaintext: ");
-            System.out.println(plaintext);
+            System.out.println(recovered);
         }
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java
index 28af1a62032a..8c6242ecb68e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RSA.java
@@ -7,11 +7,11 @@
  * RSA is an asymmetric cryptographic algorithm used for secure data encryption and decryption.
  * It relies on a pair of keys: a public key (used for encryption) and a private key
  * (used for decryption). The algorithm is based on the difficulty of factoring large prime numbers.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation includes key generation, encryption, and decryption methods that can handle both
  * text-based messages and BigInteger inputs. For more details on RSA:
  * RSA Cryptosystem - Wikipedia.
- *
+ * 

  * Example Usage:
  * 
  * RSA rsa = new RSA(1024);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java
index f81252980468..596c414b79b4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/RailFenceCipher.java
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 /**
  * The rail fence cipher (also called a zigzag cipher) is a classical type of transposition cipher.
  * It derives its name from the manner in which encryption is performed, in analogy to a fence built with horizontal rails.
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_fence_cipher
- * @author https://github.com/Krounosity
+ * ...
+ * @author ...
  */
 
 public class RailFenceCipher {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java
index f6c88ef730ec..b4edcf20ac50 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipher.java
@@ -15,8 +15,6 @@ public class SimpleSubCipher {
     /**
      * Encrypt text by replacing each element with its opposite character.
      *
-     * @param message
-     * @param cipherSmall
      * @return Encrypted message
      */
     public String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
@@ -52,8 +50,6 @@ public String encode(String message, String cipherSmall) {
      * Decrypt message by replacing each element with its opposite character in
      * cipher.
      *
-     * @param encryptedMessage
-     * @param cipherSmall
      * @return message
      */
     public String decode(String encryptedMessage, String cipherSmall) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java
index 0f117853bb85..ad5ee18a3cd5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/Vigenere.java
@@ -2,24 +2,24 @@
 
 /**
  * A Java implementation of the Vigenère Cipher.
- *
+ * 

  * The Vigenère Cipher is a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that uses a
  * keyword to shift letters in the plaintext by different amounts, depending
  * on the corresponding character in the keyword. It wraps around the alphabet,
  * ensuring the shifts are within 'A'-'Z' or 'a'-'z'.
- *
+ * 

  * Non-alphabetic characters (like spaces, punctuation) are kept unchanged.
- *
+ * 

  * Encryption Example:
  * - Plaintext: "Hello World!"
  * - Key: "suchsecret"
  * - Encrypted Text: "Zynsg Yfvev!"
- *
+ * 

  * Decryption Example:
  * - Ciphertext: "Zynsg Yfvev!"
  * - Key: "suchsecret"
  * - Decrypted Text: "Hello World!"
- *
+ * 

  * Wikipedia Reference:
  * Vigenère Cipher - Wikipedia
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java
index a612ccfbcdef..9070255b9c1d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/XORCipher.java
@@ -9,22 +9,22 @@
  * using a given key. This cipher works by applying the XOR bitwise operation between
  * the bytes of the input text and the corresponding bytes of the key (repeating the key
  * if necessary).
- *
+ * 

  * Usage:
  * - Encryption: Converts plaintext into a hexadecimal-encoded ciphertext.
  * - Decryption: Converts the hexadecimal ciphertext back into plaintext.
- *
+ * 

  * Characteristics:
  * - Symmetric: The same key is used for both encryption and decryption.
  * - Simple but vulnerable: XOR encryption is insecure for real-world cryptography,
  *   especially when the same key is reused.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Plaintext: "Hello!"
  * Key: "key"
  * Encrypted: "27090c03120b"
  * Decrypted: "Hello!"
- *
+ * 

  * Reference: XOR Cipher - Wikipedia
  *
  * @author lcsjunior
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java
index cc2e9105229a..0e39c7a9ea81 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/A5Cipher.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 /**
  * The A5Cipher class implements the A5/1 stream cipher, which is a widely used
  * encryption algorithm, particularly in mobile communications.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation uses a key stream generator to produce a stream of bits
  * that are XORed with the plaintext bits to produce the ciphertext.
  *
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ public A5Cipher(BitSet sessionKey, BitSet frameCounter) {
 
     /**
      * Encrypts the given plaintext bits using the A5/1 cipher algorithm.
-     *
+     * 

      * This method generates a key stream and XORs it with the provided plaintext
      * bits to produce the ciphertext.
      *
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ public BitSet encrypt(BitSet plainTextBits) {
 
     /**
      * Resets the internal counter of the key stream generator.
-     *
+     * 

      * This method can be called to re-initialize the state of the key stream
      * generator, allowing for new key streams to be generated for subsequent
      * encryptions.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java
index 904c379cc2a2..28fdd50d521f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78.java
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ public record Token(int index, char nextChar) {
      * Each node represents a phrase and can have child nodes for extended phrases.
      */
     private static final class TrieNode {
-        Map children = new HashMap<>();
+        final Map children = new HashMap<>();
         int index = -1; // -1 means not assigned yet
     }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java
index 199a6dd517d5..720b570c2602 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AffineConverter.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * A utility class to perform affine transformations of the form:
  * y = slope * x + intercept.
- *
+ * 

  * This class supports inversion and composition of affine transformations.
  * It is immutable, meaning each instance represents a fixed transformation.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java
index e7bdbc2b79c4..06ba653af076 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/AnytoAny.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * A utility class for converting numbers from any base to any other base.
- *
+ * 

  * This class provides a method to convert a source number from a given base
  * to a destination number in another base. Valid bases range from 2 to 10.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java
index 5219c4ba7f4e..aebca161839f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64.java
@@ -8,14 +8,14 @@
  * Base64 is a group of binary-to-text encoding schemes that represent binary data
  * in an ASCII string format by translating it into a radix-64 representation.
  * Each base64 digit represents exactly 6 bits of data.
- *
+ * 

  * Base64 encoding is commonly used when there is a need to encode binary data
  * that needs to be stored and transferred over media that are designed to deal
  * with textual data.
- *
- * Wikipedia Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64
+ * 

+ * Wikipedia Refhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64
  * Author: Nithin U.
- * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ * https://github.com/NithinU2802
  */
 
 public final class Base64 {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java
index 765cb0201dd5..21821553933d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPConverter.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * Converts an IPv4 address to its binary equivalent and vice-versa.
  * IP to Binary: Converts an IPv4 address to its binary equivalent.
  * Example: 127.3.4.5 -> 01111111.00000011.00000100.00000101
- *
+ * 

  * Binary to IP: Converts a binary equivalent to an IPv4 address.
  * Example: 01111111.00000011.00000100.00000101 -> 127.3.4.5
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java
index d42ffd027514..bf13e5597cff 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IPv6Converter.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * A utility class for converting between IPv6 and IPv4 addresses.
- *
+ * 

  * - Converts IPv4 to IPv6-mapped IPv6 address.
  * - Extracts IPv4 address from IPv6-mapped IPv6.
  * - Handles exceptions for invalid inputs.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java
index e85c608af5d0..85168d0d9587 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/IntegerToEnglish.java
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ private static String convertToWords(int number) {
 
         int hundredsDigit = number / 100;
         if (hundredsDigit > 0) {
-            if (result.length() > 0) {
+            if (!result.isEmpty()) {
                 result.insert(0, " ");
             }
             result.insert(0, String.format("%s Hundred", BASE_NUMBERS_MAP.get(hundredsDigit)));
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ public static String integerToEnglishWords(int number) {
                     if (index > 0) {
                         subResult += " " + THOUSAND_POWER_MAP.get(index);
                     }
-                    if (result.length() > 0) {
+                    if (!result.isEmpty()) {
                         result.insert(0, " ");
                     }
                     result.insert(0, subResult);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java
index a3973da0c586..383ffe334bef 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/MorseCodeConverter.java
@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@
  * Converts text to Morse code and vice-versa.
  * Text to Morse code: Each letter is separated by a space and each word is separated by a pipe (|).
  * Example: "HELLO WORLD" -> ".... . .-.. .-.. --- | .-- --- .-. .-.. -.."
- *
+ * 

  * Morse code to text: Each letter is separated by a space and each word is separated by a pipe (|).
  * Example: ".... . .-.. .-.. --- | .-- --- .-. .-.. -.." -> "HELLO WORLD"
- *
+ * 

  * Applications: Used in radio communications and algorithmic challenges.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TemperatureConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TemperatureConverter.java
index 901db17c665d..b9dd2315bc96 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TemperatureConverter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/TemperatureConverter.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
  *
  * 
This class is final and cannot be instantiated.
  *
- * @author krishna-medapati (https://github.com/krishna-medapati)
+ * @author krishna-medapati (...)
  * @see Wikipedia: Temperature Conversion
  */
 public final class TemperatureConverter {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java
index 15f74a21a17e..8cbc2bf46610 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitConversions.java
@@ -3,49 +3,75 @@
 import static java.util.Map.entry;
 
 import java.util.Map;
-import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
 
 /**
  * A utility class to perform unit conversions between different measurement systems.
- *
- * 
Currently, the class supports temperature conversions between several scales:
- * Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, Réaumur, Delisle, and Rankine.
- *
- * 
Example Usage

- * 
- *   double result = UnitConversions.TEMPERATURE.convert("Celsius", "Fahrenheit", 100.0);
- *   // Output: 212.0 (Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion of 100°C)
- * 

- *
- * 
This class makes use of an {@link UnitsConverter} that handles the conversion logic
- * based on predefined affine transformations. These transformations include scaling factors
- * and offsets for temperature conversions.
- *
- * 
Temperature Scales Supported

- * 
    
- *   
  • Celsius
    • 
- *   
  • Fahrenheit
    • 
- *   
  • Kelvin
    • 
- *   
  • Réaumur
    • 
- *   
  • Delisle
    • 
- *   
  • Rankine
    • 
- * 

  */
 public final class UnitConversions {
-    private UnitConversions() {
+
+    /**
+     * Enum managing supported temperature scales to eliminate magic strings
+     * and enforce structural type safety internally.
+     */
+    private enum TemperatureScale {
+        CELSIUS("Celsius"),
+        FAHRENHEIT("Fahrenheit"),
+        KELVIN("Kelvin"),
+        REAUMUR("Réaumur"),
+        DELISLE("Delisle"),
+        RANKINE("Rankine");
+
+        private final String unitName;
+
+        TemperatureScale(String unitName) {
+            this.unitName = unitName;
+        }
+
+        public String getName() {
+            return unitName;
+        }
     }
 
+    // Mathematical Constants for Conversions (Eliminating Magic Numbers)
+    private static final double ABSOLUTE_ZERO_CELSIUS = -273.15;
+
+    private static final double CELSIUS_TO_FAHRENHEIT_SCALE = 9.0 / 5.0;
+    private static final double CELSIUS_TO_FAHRENHEIT_OFFSET = 32.0;
+
+    private static final double REAUMUR_TO_CELSIUS_SCALE = 5.0 / 4.0;
+
+    private static final double DELISLE_TO_CELSIUS_SCALE = -2.0 / 3.0;
+    private static final double DELISLE_TO_CELSIUS_OFFSET = 100.0;
+
+    private static final double RANKINE_TO_KELVIN_SCALE = 5.0 / 9.0;
+
     /**
-     * A preconfigured instance of {@link UnitsConverter} for temperature conversions.
-     * The converter handles conversions between the following temperature units:
-     * 
    
-     *   
  • Kelvin to Celsius
    • 
-     *   
  • Celsius to Fahrenheit
    • 
-     *   
  • Réaumur to Celsius
    • 
-     *   
  • Delisle to Celsius
    • 
-     *   
  • Rankine to Kelvin
    • 
-     * 

+     * Preconfigured instance of UnitsConverter for temperature conversions.
      */
-    public static final UnitsConverter TEMPERATURE = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(entry(Pair.of("Kelvin", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(1.0, -273.15)), entry(Pair.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit"), new AffineConverter(9.0 / 5.0, 32.0)),
-        entry(Pair.of("Réaumur", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(5.0 / 4.0, 0.0)), entry(Pair.of("Delisle", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(-2.0 / 3.0, 100.0)), entry(Pair.of("Rankine", "Kelvin"), new AffineConverter(5.0 / 9.0, 0.0))));
-}
+    public static final UnitsConverter TEMPERATURE = new UnitsConverter(Map.ofEntries(
+            entry(
+                    new UnitPair(TemperatureScale.KELVIN.getName(), TemperatureScale.CELSIUS.getName()),
+                    new AffineConverter(1.0, ABSOLUTE_ZERO_CELSIUS)
+            ),
+            entry(
+                    new UnitPair(TemperatureScale.CELSIUS.getName(), TemperatureScale.FAHRENHEIT.getName()),
+                    new AffineConverter(CELSIUS_TO_FAHRENHEIT_SCALE, CELSIUS_TO_FAHRENHEIT_OFFSET)
+            ),
+            entry(
+                    new UnitPair(TemperatureScale.REAUMUR.getName(), TemperatureScale.CELSIUS.getName()),
+                    new AffineConverter(REAUMUR_TO_CELSIUS_SCALE, 0.0)
+            ),
+            entry(
+                    new UnitPair(TemperatureScale.DELISLE.getName(), TemperatureScale.CELSIUS.getName()),
+                    new AffineConverter(DELISLE_TO_CELSIUS_SCALE, DELISLE_TO_CELSIUS_OFFSET)
+            ),
+            entry(
+                    new UnitPair(TemperatureScale.RANKINE.getName(), TemperatureScale.KELVIN.getName()),
+                    new AffineConverter(RANKINE_TO_KELVIN_SCALE, 0.0)
+            )
+    ));
+
+    private UnitConversions() {
+        // Prevent instantiation
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java
index 00690b2c0f9b..c64053a81835 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/UnitsConverter.java
@@ -4,144 +4,161 @@
 import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
+import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.Set;
-import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.Pair;
 
 /**
- * A class that handles unit conversions using affine transformations.
- *
- * 
The {@code UnitsConverter} allows converting values between different units using
- * pre-defined affine conversion formulas. Each conversion is represented by an
- * {@link AffineConverter} that defines the scaling and offset for the conversion.
- *
- * 
For each unit, both direct conversions (e.g., Celsius to Fahrenheit) and inverse
- * conversions (e.g., Fahrenheit to Celsius) are generated automatically. It also computes
- * transitive conversions (e.g., Celsius to Kelvin via Fahrenheit if both conversions exist).
- *
- * 
Key features include:
- * 
    
- *   
  • Automatic handling of inverse conversions (e.g., Fahrenheit to Celsius).
    • 
- *   
  • Compositional conversions, meaning if conversions between A -> B and B -> C exist,
- *       it can automatically generate A -> C conversion.
    • 
- *   
  • Supports multiple unit systems as long as conversions are provided in pairs.
    • 
- * 

- *
- * 
Example Usage

- * 
- * Map<Pair<String, String>, AffineConverter> basicConversions = Map.ofEntries(
- *     entry(Pair.of("Celsius", "Fahrenheit"), new AffineConverter(9.0 / 5.0, 32.0)),
- *     entry(Pair.of("Kelvin", "Celsius"), new AffineConverter(1.0, -273.15))
- * );
- *
- * UnitsConverter converter = new UnitsConverter(basicConversions);
- * double result = converter.convert("Celsius", "Fahrenheit", 100.0);
- * // Output: 212.0 (Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion of 100°C)
- * 

- *
- * 
Exception Handling

- * 
    
- *   
  • If the input unit and output unit are the same, an {@link IllegalArgumentException} is thrown.
    • 
- *   
  • If a conversion between the requested units does not exist, a {@link NoSuchElementException} is thrown.
    • 
- * 

+ * Represents a directed conversion between two units using an affine transformation.
  */
-public final class UnitsConverter {
-    private final Map, AffineConverter> conversions;
-    private final Set units;
+record UnitPair(String from, String to) {
+    UnitPair {
+        Objects.requireNonNull(from);
+        Objects.requireNonNull(to);
+    }
 
-    private static void putIfNeeded(Map, AffineConverter> conversions, final String inputUnit, final String outputUnit, final AffineConverter converter) {
-        if (!inputUnit.equals(outputUnit)) {
-            final var key = Pair.of(inputUnit, outputUnit);
-            conversions.putIfAbsent(key, converter);
-        }
+    @Override
+    public String toString() {
+        return from + " → " + to;
     }
+}
 
-    private static Map, AffineConverter> addInversions(final Map, AffineConverter> knownConversions) {
-        Map, AffineConverter> res = new HashMap, AffineConverter>();
-        for (final var curConversion : knownConversions.entrySet()) {
-            final var inputUnit = curConversion.getKey().getKey();
-            final var outputUnit = curConversion.getKey().getValue();
-            putIfNeeded(res, inputUnit, outputUnit, curConversion.getValue());
-            putIfNeeded(res, outputUnit, inputUnit, curConversion.getValue().invert());
-        }
-        return res;
+/**
+ * Abstraction for a conversion graph that can compute transitive closures.
+ */
+interface ConversionGraph {
+    double convert(String from, String to, double value);
+    Set availableUnits();
+    boolean hasConversion(String from, String to);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Main public API — thin facade following SRP.
+ */
+public final class UnitsConverter implements ConversionGraph {
+
+    private final ConversionGraph graph;
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a new UnitsConverter with automatic inverse and transitive conversions.
+     *
+     * @param basicConversions initial direct conversions
+     */
+    public UnitsConverter(Map basicConversions) {
+        this.graph = new AffineConversionGraph(basicConversions);
     }
 
-    private static Map, AffineConverter> addCompositions(final Map, AffineConverter> knownConversions) {
-        Map, AffineConverter> res = new HashMap, AffineConverter>();
-        for (final var first : knownConversions.entrySet()) {
-            final var firstKey = first.getKey();
-            putIfNeeded(res, firstKey.getKey(), firstKey.getValue(), first.getValue());
-            for (final var second : knownConversions.entrySet()) {
-                final var secondKey = second.getKey();
-                if (firstKey.getValue().equals(secondKey.getKey())) {
-                    final var newConversion = second.getValue().compose(first.getValue());
-                    putIfNeeded(res, firstKey.getKey(), secondKey.getValue(), newConversion);
-                }
-            }
+    @Override
+    public double convert(String from, String to, double value) {
+        if (from.equals(to)) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input and output units must be different.");
         }
-        return res;
+        return graph.convert(from, to, value);
     }
 
-    private static Map, AffineConverter> addAll(final Map, AffineConverter> knownConversions) {
-        final var res = addInversions(knownConversions);
-        return addCompositions(res);
+    @Override
+    public Set availableUnits() {
+        return graph.availableUnits();
     }
 
-    private static Map, AffineConverter> computeAllConversions(final Map, AffineConverter> basicConversions) {
-        var tmp = basicConversions;
-        var res = addAll(tmp);
-        while (res.size() != tmp.size()) {
-            tmp = res;
-            res = addAll(tmp);
+    @Override
+    public boolean hasConversion(String from, String to) {
+        return graph.hasConversion(from, to);
+    }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Internal implementation handling the conversion graph and transitive closure.
+ * Follows SRP and DIP.
+ */
+final class AffineConversionGraph implements ConversionGraph {
+
+    private final Map conversions;
+    private final Set units;
+
+    AffineConversionGraph(Map basicConversions) {
+        Map initial = basicConversions != null
+                ? new HashMap<>(basicConversions)
+                : Map.of();
+
+        this.conversions = computeFullClosure(initial);
+        this.units = extractUnits(this.conversions);
+    }
+
+    private Map computeFullClosure(Map basic) {
+        Map current = addInversions(basic);
+
+        boolean changed;
+        do {
+            Map next = addCompositions(current);
+            changed = next.size() > current.size();
+            current = next;
+        } while (changed);
+
+        return Map.copyOf(current); // immutable
+    }
+
+    private Map addInversions(Map known) {
+        Map result = new HashMap<>(known.size() * 2);
+
+        for (var entry : known.entrySet()) {
+            UnitPair pair = entry.getKey();
+            AffineConverter conv = entry.getValue();
+
+            putIfDifferent(result, pair.from(), pair.to(), conv);
+            putIfDifferent(result, pair.to(), pair.from(), conv.invert());
         }
-        return res;
+        return result;
     }
 
-    private static Set extractUnits(final Map, AffineConverter> conversions) {
-        Set res = new HashSet<>();
-        for (final var conversion : conversions.entrySet()) {
-            res.add(conversion.getKey().getKey());
+    private Map addCompositions(Map known) {
+        Map result = new HashMap<>(known);
+
+        for (var first : known.entrySet()) {
+            UnitPair firstPair = first.getKey();
+            AffineConverter firstConv = first.getValue();
+
+            for (var second : known.entrySet()) {
+                UnitPair secondPair = second.getKey();
+                if (firstPair.to().equals(secondPair.from())) {
+                    AffineConverter composed = second.getValue().compose(firstConv);
+                    putIfDifferent(result, firstPair.from(), secondPair.to(), composed);
+                }
+            }
         }
-        return res;
+        return result;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Constructor for {@code UnitsConverter}.
-     *
-     * 
Accepts a map of basic conversions and automatically generates inverse and
-     * transitive conversions.
-     *
-     * @param basicConversions the initial set of unit conversions to add.
-     */
-    public UnitsConverter(final Map, AffineConverter> basicConversions) {
-        conversions = computeAllConversions(basicConversions);
-        units = extractUnits(conversions);
+    private void putIfDifferent(Map map, String from, String to, AffineConverter conv) {
+        if (!from.equals(to)) {
+            map.putIfAbsent(new UnitPair(from, to), conv);
+        }
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Converts a value from one unit to another.
-     *
-     * @param inputUnit the unit of the input value.
-     * @param outputUnit the unit to convert the value into.
-     * @param value the value to convert.
-     * @return the converted value in the target unit.
-     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if inputUnit equals outputUnit.
-     * @throws NoSuchElementException if no conversion exists between the units.
-     */
-    public double convert(final String inputUnit, final String outputUnit, final double value) {
-        if (inputUnit.equals(outputUnit)) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("inputUnit must be different from outputUnit.");
+    private Set extractUnits(Map convs) {
+        Set unitsSet = new HashSet<>();
+        for (UnitPair pair : convs.keySet()) {
+            unitsSet.add(pair.from());
         }
-        final var conversionKey = Pair.of(inputUnit, outputUnit);
-        return conversions.computeIfAbsent(conversionKey, k -> { throw new NoSuchElementException("No converter for: " + k); }).convert(value);
+        return Set.copyOf(unitsSet);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Retrieves the set of all units supported by this converter.
-     *
-     * @return a set of available units.
-     */
+    @Override
+    public double convert(String from, String to, double value) {
+        UnitPair key = new UnitPair(from, to);
+        AffineConverter converter = conversions.get(key);
+        if (converter == null) {
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("No converter found for: " + key);
+        }
+        return converter.convert(value);
+    }
+
+    @Override
     public Set availableUnits() {
         return units;
     }
-}
+
+    @Override
+    public boolean hasConversion(String from, String to) {
+        return conversions.containsKey(new UnitPair(from, to));
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java
index fa048434a187..457088ce424c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCache.java
@@ -51,8 +51,8 @@ public final class FIFOCache {
      * @param  the type of the value being cached
      */
     private static class CacheEntry {
-        V value;
-        long expiryTime;
+        final V value;
+        final long expiryTime;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a new {@code CacheEntry} with the specified value and time-to-live (TTL).
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java
index bf2b928ec33c..b40cb68aad81 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LFUCache.java
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
  * @param  The type of keys maintained by this cache.
  * @param  The type of mapped values.
  *
- * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ * @author Akshay Dubey (...)
  */
 public class LFUCache {
 
@@ -138,14 +138,13 @@ private void addNodeWithUpdatedFrequency(Node node) {
                         node.next = temp;
                         temp.previous = node;
                         this.head = node;
-                        break;
                     } else {
                         node.next = temp;
                         node.previous = temp.previous;
                         temp.previous.next = node;
                         temp.previous = node;
-                        break;
                     }
+                    break;
                 } else {
                     temp = temp.next;
                     if (temp == null) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java
index df3d4da912fe..e4656c3b76f5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/LIFOCache.java
@@ -54,8 +54,8 @@ public final class LIFOCache {
      * @param  the type of the value being cached
      */
     private static class CacheEntry {
-        V value;
-        long expiryTime;
+        final V value;
+        final long expiryTime;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a new {@code CacheEntry} with the specified value and time-to-live (TTL).
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java
index 93b13e6ad654..b91c391e9a91 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/MRUCache.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
  * In contrast to the Least Recently Used (LRU) strategy, the MRU caching policy
  * evicts the most recently accessed items first. This class provides methods to
  * store key-value pairs and manage cache eviction based on this policy.
- *
+ * 

  * For more information, refer to:
  * MRU on Wikipedia.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java
index 1821872be9cd..bb88f3c954ba 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCache.java
@@ -53,8 +53,8 @@ public final class RRCache {
      * @param  the type of the value being cached
      */
     private static class CacheEntry {
-        V value;
-        long expiryTime;
+        final V value;
+        final long expiryTime;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a new {@code CacheEntry} with the specified value and time-to-live (TTL).
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java
index 25b01bce19f3..62034efaff53 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GCounter.java
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@
  * This implementation supports incrementing, querying the total count,
  * comparing with other G-Counters, and merging with another G-Counter
  * to compute the element-wise maximum.
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ * (...)
  *
- * @author itakurah (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @author itakurah (...)
  */
 
 class GCounter {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java
index 2b8959ed0136..21c623def1b0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/GSet.java
@@ -9,9 +9,9 @@
  * it cannot be removed. The merge operation of two G-Sets is their union.
  * This implementation supports adding elements, looking up elements, comparing with other G-Sets,
  * and merging with another G-Set to create a new G-Set containing all unique elements from both sets.
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ * (...)
  *
- * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (...)
  */
 
 public class GSet {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java
index d33bd3ee84d9..347ffb801966 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/LWWElementSet.java
@@ -110,8 +110,8 @@ private Element resolveConflict(Element e1, Element e2) {
  * @param  The type of the key associated with the element.
  */
 class Element {
-    T key;
-    Instant timestamp;
+    final T key;
+    final Instant timestamp;
 
     /**
      * Constructs a new Element with the specified key and timestamp.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java
index a4cc2ffdd4a6..07defb00488b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/ORSet.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
  * and merging with another OR-Set to create a new OR-Set containing all unique elements
  * from both sets.
  *
- * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (...)
  * @see Conflict-free_replicated_data_type
  * @see itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin)
  */
@@ -166,7 +166,6 @@ public void merge(ORSet other) {
      */
     public static class Pair {
         private final T element;
-        private final String uniqueTag;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a pair with the specified element and unique tag.
@@ -176,7 +175,6 @@ public static class Pair {
          */
         public Pair(T element, String uniqueTag) {
             this.element = element;
-            this.uniqueTag = uniqueTag;
         }
 
         /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java
index 53c21dcbd108..0c8dccf107d9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/PNCounter.java
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@
  * This implementation supports incrementing, decrementing, querying the total count,
  * comparing with other PN-Counters, and merging with another PN-Counter
  * to compute the element-wise maximum for both increment and decrement counters.
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ * (...)
  *
- * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (...)
  */
 
 class PNCounter {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java
index c0ce17b2802b..35e36c21a3f3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/crdt/TwoPSet.java
@@ -10,9 +10,9 @@
  * Once an element is removed and placed in the tombstone set, it cannot be re-added, adhering to "remove-wins" semantics.
  * This implementation supports querying the presence of elements, adding elements, removing elements,
  * comparing with other 2P-Sets, and merging two 2P-Sets while preserving the remove-wins semantics.
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict-free_replicated_data_type)
+ * (...)
  *
- * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @author itakurah (Niklas Hoefflin) (...)
  */
 
 public class TwoPSet {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java
index 71951f67dfc8..03c0eac50537 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/DisjointSetUnionBySize.java
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ public class DisjointSetUnionBySize {
      * Each node keeps track of its parent and the size of the set it represents.
      */
     public static class Node {
-        public T value;
+        public final T value;
         public Node parent;
         public int size; // size of the set
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java
index 260f297bd713..4172a1bacc37 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/disjointsetunion/Node.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ public class Node {
     /**
      * The data element associated with the node.
      */
-    public T data;
+    public final T data;
 
     public Node(final T data) {
         this.data = data;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java
index 741caa59c5b5..ee1e911069a0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/AStar.java
@@ -19,7 +19,8 @@ private AStar() {
      * Represents a graph using an adjacency list.
      */
     static class Graph {
-        private ArrayList> graph;
+        // 1. Made graph field final
+        private final ArrayList> graph;
 
         Graph(int size) {
             this.graph = new ArrayList<>();
@@ -43,9 +44,10 @@ private void addEdge(Edge edge) {
      * Represents an edge in the graph with a start node, end node, and weight.
      */
     private static class Edge {
-        private int from;
-        private int to;
-        private int weight;
+        // 2, 3, 4. Made from, to, and weight fields final
+        private final int from;
+        private final int to;
+        private final int weight;
 
         Edge(int from, int to, int weight) {
             this.from = from;
@@ -70,9 +72,10 @@ public int getWeight() {
      * Contains information about the path and its total distance.
      */
     static class PathAndDistance {
-        private int distance; // total distance from the start node
-        private ArrayList path; // list of nodes in the path
-        private int estimated; // heuristic estimate for reaching the destination
+        // 5, 6, 7. Made distance, path, and estimated fields final
+        private final int distance; // total distance from the start node
+        private final ArrayList path; // list of nodes in the path
+        private final int estimated; // heuristic estimate for reaching the destination
 
         PathAndDistance(int distance, ArrayList path, int estimated) {
             this.distance = distance;
@@ -141,4 +144,4 @@ public static PathAndDistance aStar(int from, int to, Graph graph, int[] heurist
         }
         return (solutionFound) ? currentData : new PathAndDistance(-1, null, -1);
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java
index 5184dae58d28..5322e6870cb4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BellmanFord.java
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@ class BellmanFord /*
                    */
 {
 
-    int vertex;
-    int edge;
-    private Edge[] edges;
+    final int vertex;
+    final int edge;
+    private final Edge[] edges;
     private int index = 0;
 
     BellmanFord(int v, int e) {
@@ -24,13 +24,13 @@ class BellmanFord /*
 
     class Edge {
 
-        int u;
-        int v;
-        int w;
+        final int u;
+        final int v;
+        final int w;
 
         /**
-         * @param u Source Vertex
-         * @param v End vertex
+         * @param a Source Vertex
+         * @param b End vertex
          * @param c Weight
          */
         Edge(int a, int b, int c) {
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ class Edge {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param p[] Parent array which shows updates in edges
+     * @param p Parent array which shows updates in edges
      * @param i   Current vertex under consideration
      */
     void printPath(int[] p, int i) {
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ public void go() {
     /**
      * @param source Starting vertex
      * @param end    Ending vertex
-     * @param Edge   Array of edges
+     * @param arr   Array of edges
      */
     public void show(int source, int end,
         Edge[] arr) { // be created by using addEdge() method and passed by calling getEdgeArray()
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java
index 15ae5225533c..4d5e14dc5434 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BipartiteGraphDFS.java
@@ -7,25 +7,25 @@
  * This class provides a method to check if a given undirected graph is bipartite using Depth-First Search (DFS).
  * A bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets such that no two vertices
  * within the same set are adjacent. In other words, all edges must go between the two sets.
- *
+ * 

  * The implementation leverages DFS to attempt to color the graph using two colors. If we can color the graph such
  * that no two adjacent vertices have the same color, the graph is bipartite.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Input (Adjacency Matrix):
  * {{0, 1, 0, 1},
  *  {1, 0, 1, 0},
  *  {0, 1, 0, 1},
  *  {1, 0, 1, 0}}
- *
+ * 

  * Output: YES (This graph is bipartite)
- *
+ * 

  * Input (Adjacency Matrix):
  * {{0, 1, 1, 0},
  *  {1, 0, 1, 0},
  *  {1, 1, 0, 1},
  *  {0, 0, 1, 0}}
- *
+ * 

  * Output: NO (This graph is not bipartite)
  */
 public final class BipartiteGraphDFS {
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ private BipartiteGraphDFS() {
 
     /**
      * Helper method to perform DFS and check if the graph is bipartite.
-     *
+     * 

      * During DFS traversal, this method attempts to color each vertex in such a way
      * that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.
      *
@@ -44,14 +44,14 @@ private BipartiteGraphDFS() {
      * @param node  Current vertex being processed
      * @return      True if the graph (or component of the graph) is bipartite, otherwise false
      */
-    private static boolean bipartite(int v, ArrayList> adj, int[] color, int node) {
+    private static boolean notbipartite(int v, ArrayList> adj, int[] color, int node) {
         if (color[node] == -1) {
             color[node] = 1;
         }
         for (Integer it : adj.get(node)) {
             if (color[it] == -1) {
                 color[it] = 1 - color[node];
-                if (!bipartite(v, adj, color, it)) {
+                if (!notbipartite(v, adj, color, it)) {
                     return false;
                 }
             } else if (color[it] == color[node]) {
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ public static boolean isBipartite(int v, ArrayList> adj) {
         Arrays.fill(color, -1);
         for (int i = 0; i < v; i++) {
             if (color[i] == -1) {
-                if (!bipartite(v, adj, color, i)) {
+                if (!notbipartite(v, adj, color, i)) {
                     return false;
                 }
             }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java
index dcdb08ad133e..7aaf07e50a1d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/BoruvkaAlgorithm.java
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@
 
 /**
  * Boruvka's algorithm to find Minimum Spanning Tree
- * (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bor%C5%AFvka%27s_algorithm)
+ * (...)
  *
- * @author itakurah (https://github.com/itakurah)
+ * @author itakurah (...)
  */
 
 final class BoruvkaAlgorithm {
@@ -76,8 +76,8 @@ private static class Component {
      * Represents the state of Union-Find components and the result list
      */
     private static class BoruvkaState {
-        List result;
-        Component[] components;
+        final List result;
+        final Component[] components;
         final Graph graph;
 
         BoruvkaState(final Graph graph) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java
index 520a1681774a..6a83ea3f44a7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/ConnectedComponent.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ class Graph> {
 
     class Node {
 
-        E name;
+        final E name;
 
         Node(E name) {
             this.name = name;
@@ -22,8 +22,8 @@ class Node {
 
     class Edge {
 
-        Node startNode;
-        Node endNode;
+        final Node startNode;
+        final Node endNode;
 
         Edge(Node startNode, Node endNode) {
             this.startNode = startNode;
@@ -31,8 +31,8 @@ class Edge {
         }
     }
 
-    ArrayList edgeList;
-    ArrayList nodeList;
+    final ArrayList edgeList;
+    final ArrayList nodeList;
 
     Graph() {
         edgeList = new ArrayList();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java
index aea2b74bd13b..63362d0b9a7f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Cycles.java
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@
 class Cycle {
 
     private final int nodes;
-    private int[][] adjacencyMatrix;
-    private boolean[] visited;
-    ArrayList> cycles = new ArrayList>();
+    private final int[][] adjacencyMatrix;
+    private final boolean[] visited;
+    final ArrayList> cycles = new ArrayList>();
 
     Cycle() {
         Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ private void dfs(Integer start, Integer curr, ArrayList temp) {
             }
         }
 
-        if (temp.size() > 0) {
+        if (!temp.isEmpty()) {
             temp.remove(temp.size() - 1);
         }
         visited[curr] = false;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java
index da3fba88c618..16529feb5b78 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DialsAlgorithm.java
@@ -10,11 +10,11 @@
  * An implementation of Dial's Algorithm for the single-source shortest path problem.
  * This algorithm is an optimization of Dijkstra's algorithm and is particularly
  * efficient for graphs with small, non-negative integer edge weights.
- *
+ * 

  * It uses a bucket queue (implemented here as a List of HashSets) to store vertices,
  * where each bucket corresponds to a specific distance from the source. This is more
  * efficient than a standard priority queue when the range of edge weights is small.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(E + W * V), where E is the number of edges, V is the number
  * of vertices, and W is the maximum weight of any edge.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java
index 70699a9461f7..4c94929d8bff 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraAlgorithm.java
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ public DijkstraAlgorithm(int vertexCount) {
 
     /**
      * Executes Dijkstra's algorithm on the provided graph to find the shortest paths from the source vertex to all other vertices.
-     *
+     * 

      * The graph is represented as an adjacency matrix where {@code graph[i][j]} represents the weight of the edge from vertex {@code i}
      * to vertex {@code j}. A value of 0 indicates no edge exists between the vertices.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java
index a686b808a970..8b5ba00834b0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm.java
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ public DijkstraOptimizedAlgorithm(int vertexCount) {
 
     /**
      * Executes Dijkstra's algorithm on the provided graph to find the shortest paths from the source vertex to all other vertices.
-     *
+     * 

      * The graph is represented as an adjacency matrix where {@code graph[i][j]} represents the weight of the edge from vertex {@code i}
      * to vertex {@code j}. A value of 0 indicates no edge exists between the vertices.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java
index db716580d689..76ece5045f11 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm.java
@@ -215,12 +215,12 @@ private static void contractBlossom(BlossomData blossomData) {
      * Auxiliary data class to encapsulate common parameters for the blossom operations.
      */
     static class BlossomAuxData {
-        Queue queue; // Queue for BFS traversal
-        int[] parent; // Parent array to store the paths
-        int[] base; // Base array to track the base of each vertex
-        boolean[] inBlossom; // Flags to indicate if a vertex is in a blossom
-        int[] match; // Array to store matches for each vertex
-        boolean[] inQueue; // Flags to track vertices in the BFS queue
+        final Queue queue; // Queue for BFS traversal
+        final int[] parent; // Parent array to store the paths
+        final int[] base; // Base array to track the base of each vertex
+        final boolean[] inBlossom; // Flags to indicate if a vertex is in a blossom
+        final int[] match; // Array to store matches for each vertex
+        final boolean[] inQueue; // Flags to track vertices in the BFS queue
 
         BlossomAuxData(Queue queue, int[] parent, int[] base, boolean[] inBlossom, int[] match, boolean[] inQueue) {
             this.queue = queue;
@@ -236,10 +236,10 @@ static class BlossomAuxData {
      * BlossomData class with reduced parameters.
      */
     static class BlossomData {
-        BlossomAuxData auxData; // Use the auxiliary data class
-        int u; // One vertex in the edge
-        int v; // Another vertex in the edge
-        int lca; // Lowest Common Ancestor
+        final BlossomAuxData auxData; // Use the auxiliary data class
+        final int u; // One vertex in the edge
+        final int v; // Another vertex in the edge
+        final int lca; // Lowest Common Ancestor
 
         BlossomData(BlossomAuxData auxData, int u, int v, int lca) {
             this.auxData = auxData;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java
index e5e673a21794..d32356e973f7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/FloydWarshall.java
@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@
  */
 public class FloydWarshall {
 
-    private int[][] distanceMatrix;
-    private int numberofvertices;
+    private final int[][] distanceMatrix;
+    private final int numberofvertices;
     public static final int INFINITY = 999;
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java
index b0970f36ddc5..b1f7ca2c1158 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Graphs.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 class AdjacencyListGraph> {
 
-    ArrayList vertices;
+    final ArrayList vertices;
 
     AdjacencyListGraph() {
         vertices = new ArrayList<>();
@@ -12,8 +12,8 @@ class AdjacencyListGraph> {
 
     private class Vertex {
 
-        E data;
-        ArrayList adjacentVertices;
+        final E data;
+        final ArrayList adjacentVertices;
 
         Vertex(E data) {
             adjacentVertices = new ArrayList<>();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java
index 351bd5b009e8..23fa51b81a89 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/JohnsonsAlgorithm.java
@@ -7,17 +7,17 @@
 /**
  * This class implements Johnson's algorithm for finding all-pairs shortest paths in a weighted,
  * directed graph that may contain negative edge weights.
- *
+ * 

  * Johnson's algorithm works by using the Bellman-Ford algorithm to compute a transformation of the
  * input graph that removes all negative weights, allowing Dijkstra's algorithm to be used for
  * efficient shortest path computations.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(V^2 * log(V) + V*E)
  * Space Complexity: O(V^2)
- *
+ * 

  * Where V is the number of vertices and E is the number of edges in the graph.
- *
- * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%27s_algorithm}
+ /**
+ * For more information, please visit Johnson's Algorithm
  */
 public final class JohnsonsAlgorithm {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java
index 9a97bc3f4808..eb7e353120c0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KahnsAlgorithm.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
  */
 class AdjacencyList> {
 
-    Map> adj;
+    final Map> adj;
 
     /**
      * Constructor to initialize the adjacency list.
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ Set getVertices() {
  */
 class TopologicalSort> {
 
-    AdjacencyList graph;
+    final AdjacencyList graph;
     Map inDegree;
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java
index 331d7196b61c..e38b482e2431 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/Kruskal.java
@@ -27,9 +27,9 @@ public class Kruskal {
      */
     static class Edge {
 
-        int from;
-        int to;
-        int weight;
+        final int from;
+        final int to;
+        final int weight;
 
         Edge(int from, int to, int weight) {
             this.from = from;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java
index 8aafc1ef3368..ee1154cba8ac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 import java.util.HashSet;
 
 public class UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph {
-    private ArrayList> adjacencyList = new ArrayList<>();
+    private final ArrayList> adjacencyList = new ArrayList<>();
 
     /**
      * Adds a new node to the graph by adding an empty HashMap for its neighbors.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java
index 4bf21c7ed4c1..406994fd87f1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/WelshPowell.java
@@ -1,8 +1,12 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.graphs;
 
+import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.Comparator;
 import java.util.HashSet;
+import java.util.List;
+import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.stream.IntStream;
 
 /**
@@ -22,7 +26,6 @@
  * For more information, see Graph Coloring.
  * 

  */
-@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
 public final class WelshPowell {
     private static final int BLANK_COLOR = -1; // Constant representing an uncolored state
 
@@ -33,7 +36,7 @@ private WelshPowell() {
      * Represents a graph using an adjacency list.
      */
     static final class Graph {
-        private final HashSet[] adjacencyLists;
+        private final List> adjacencyLists;
 
         /**
          * Initializes a graph with a specified number of vertices.
@@ -46,25 +49,27 @@ private Graph(int vertices) {
                 throw new IllegalArgumentException("Number of vertices cannot be negative");
             }
 
-            adjacencyLists = new HashSet[vertices];
-            Arrays.setAll(adjacencyLists, i -> new HashSet<>());
+            adjacencyLists = new ArrayList<>(vertices);
+            for (int i = 0; i < vertices; i++) {
+                adjacencyLists.add(new HashSet<>());
+            }
         }
 
         /**
          * Adds an edge between two vertices in the graph.
          *
-         * @param nodeA one end of the edge
-         * @param nodeB the other end of the edge
+         * @param vertexA one end of the edge
+         * @param vertexB the other end of the edge
          * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the vertices are out of bounds or if a self-loop is attempted
          */
-        private void addEdge(int nodeA, int nodeB) {
-            validateVertex(nodeA);
-            validateVertex(nodeB);
-            if (nodeA == nodeB) {
+        private void addEdge(int vertexA, int vertexB) {
+            validateVertex(vertexA);
+            validateVertex(vertexB);
+            if (vertexA == vertexB) {
                 throw new IllegalArgumentException("Self-loops are not allowed");
             }
-            adjacencyLists[nodeA].add(nodeB);
-            adjacencyLists[nodeB].add(nodeA);
+            adjacencyLists.get(vertexA).add(vertexB);
+            adjacencyLists.get(vertexB).add(vertexA);
         }
 
         /**
@@ -80,13 +85,14 @@ private void validateVertex(int vertex) {
         }
 
         /**
-         * Returns the adjacency list for a specific vertex.
+         * Returns the adjacency list for a specific vertex. The returned set is a read-only
+         * view: callers cannot mutate the graph's internal structure through it.
          *
          * @param vertex the index of the vertex
          * @return the set of adjacent vertices
          */
-        HashSet getAdjacencyList(int vertex) {
-            return adjacencyLists[vertex];
+        Set getAdjacencyList(int vertex) {
+            return Collections.unmodifiableSet(adjacencyLists.get(vertex));
         }
 
         /**
@@ -95,7 +101,7 @@ HashSet getAdjacencyList(int vertex) {
          * @return the number of vertices
          */
         int getNumVertices() {
-            return adjacencyLists.length;
+            return adjacencyLists.size();
         }
     }
 
@@ -125,88 +131,96 @@ public static Graph makeGraph(int numberOfVertices, int[][] listOfEdges) {
      * @return an array of integers where each index represents a vertex and the value represents the color assigned
      */
     public static int[] findColoring(Graph graph) {
-        int[] colors = initializeColors(graph.getNumVertices());
-        Integer[] sortedVertices = getSortedNodes(graph);
-        for (int vertex : sortedVertices) {
-            if (isBlank(colors[vertex])) {
-                boolean[] usedColors = computeUsedColors(graph, vertex, colors);
-                final var newColor = firstUnusedColor(usedColors);
-                colors[vertex] = newColor;
-                Arrays.stream(sortedVertices).forEach(otherVertex -> {
-                    if (isBlank(colors[otherVertex]) && !isAdjacentToColored(graph, otherVertex, colors)) {
-                        colors[otherVertex] = newColor;
-                    }
-                });
-            }
-        }
-        return colors;
+        return new Coloring(graph).run();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Helper method to check if a color is unassigned
-     *
-     * @param color the color to check
-     * @return {@code true} if the color is unassigned, {@code false} otherwise
+     * Bundles the graph being colored together with its in-progress color assignment.
+     * These two values were previously passed as a pair to nearly every helper method
+     * (a data clump); packaging them here lets each step read as an instance method
+     * with implicit access to shared state, instead of threading both through every call.
      */
-    private static boolean isBlank(int color) {
-        return color == BLANK_COLOR;
-    }
+    private static final class Coloring {
+        private final Graph graph;
+        private final int[] colors;
+
+        private Coloring(Graph graph) {
+            this.graph = graph;
+            this.colors = new int[graph.getNumVertices()];
+            Arrays.fill(colors, BLANK_COLOR);
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Checks if a vertex has adjacent colored vertices
-     *
-     * @param graph the input graph
-     * @param vertex the vertex to check
-     * @param colors the array of colors assigned to the vertices
-     * @return {@code true} if the vertex has adjacent colored vertices, {@code false} otherwise
-     */
-    private static boolean isAdjacentToColored(Graph graph, int vertex, int[] colors) {
-        return graph.getAdjacencyList(vertex).stream().anyMatch(otherVertex -> !isBlank(colors[otherVertex]));
-    }
+        private int[] run() {
+            Integer[] sortedVertices = getSortedVertices();
+            for (int vertex : sortedVertices) {
+                if (isBlank(colors[vertex])) {
+                    boolean[] usedColors = computeUsedColors(vertex);
+                    int newColor = firstUnusedColor(usedColors);
+                    colors[vertex] = newColor;
+                    for (int otherVertex : sortedVertices) {
+                        if (isBlank(colors[otherVertex]) && !isAdjacentToColored(otherVertex)) {
+                            colors[otherVertex] = newColor;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            return colors;
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Initializes the colors array with blank color
-     *
-     * @param numberOfVertices the number of vertices in the graph
-     * @return an array of integers representing the colors assigned to the vertices
-     */
-    private static int[] initializeColors(int numberOfVertices) {
-        int[] colors = new int[numberOfVertices];
-        Arrays.fill(colors, BLANK_COLOR);
-        return colors;
-    }
+        /**
+         * Helper method to check if a color is unassigned
+         *
+         * @param color the color to check
+         * @return {@code true} if the color is unassigned, {@code false} otherwise
+         */
+        private boolean isBlank(int color) {
+            return color == BLANK_COLOR;
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Sorts the vertices by their degree in descending order
-     *
-     * @param graph the input graph
-     * @return an array of integers representing the vertices sorted by degree
-     */
-    private static Integer[] getSortedNodes(final Graph graph) {
-        return IntStream.range(0, graph.getNumVertices()).boxed().sorted(Comparator.comparingInt(v -> - graph.getAdjacencyList(v).size())).toArray(Integer[] ::new);
-    }
+        /**
+         * Checks if a vertex has adjacent colored vertices
+         *
+         * @param vertex the vertex to check
+         * @return {@code true} if the vertex has adjacent colored vertices, {@code false} otherwise
+         */
+        private boolean isAdjacentToColored(int vertex) {
+            return graph.getAdjacencyList(vertex).stream().anyMatch(neighbor -> !isBlank(colors[neighbor]));
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Computes the colors already used by the adjacent vertices
-     *
-     * @param graph the input graph
-     * @param vertex the vertex to check
-     * @param colors the array of colors assigned to the vertices
-     * @return an array of booleans representing the colors used by the adjacent vertices
-     */
-    private static boolean[] computeUsedColors(final Graph graph, final int vertex, final int[] colors) {
-        boolean[] usedColors = new boolean[graph.getNumVertices()];
-        graph.getAdjacencyList(vertex).stream().map(neighbor -> colors[neighbor]).filter(color -> !isBlank(color)).forEach(color -> usedColors[color] = true);
-        return usedColors;
-    }
+        /**
+         * Sorts the vertices by their degree in descending order
+         *
+         * @return an array of integers representing the vertices sorted by degree
+         */
+        private Integer[] getSortedVertices() {
+            return IntStream.range(0, graph.getNumVertices())
+                    .boxed()
+                    .sorted(Comparator.comparingInt(v -> graph.getAdjacencyList(v).size()).reversed())
+                    .toArray(Integer[] ::new);
+        }
 
-    /**
-     * Finds the first unused color
-     *
-     * @param usedColors the array of colors used by the adjacent vertices
-     * @return the first unused color
-     */
-    private static int firstUnusedColor(boolean[] usedColors) {
-        return IntStream.range(0, usedColors.length).filter(color -> !usedColors[color]).findFirst().getAsInt();
+        /**
+         * Computes the colors already used by the adjacent vertices
+         *
+         * @param vertex the vertex to check
+         * @return an array of booleans representing the colors used by the adjacent vertices
+         */
+        private boolean[] computeUsedColors(int vertex) {
+            boolean[] usedColors = new boolean[graph.getNumVertices()];
+            graph.getAdjacencyList(vertex).stream().map(neighbor -> colors[neighbor]).filter(color -> !isBlank(color)).forEach(color -> usedColors[color] = true);
+            return usedColors;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Finds the first unused color.
+         *
+         * @param usedColors the array of colors used by the adjacent vertices
+         * @return the first unused color
+         */
+        private int firstUnusedColor(boolean[] usedColors) {
+            // Always present: a vertex has at most (numVertices - 1) neighbors, so at least
+            // one color in a numVertices-sized palette is guaranteed to remain unused.
+            return IntStream.range(0, usedColors.length).filter(color -> !usedColors[color]).findFirst().getAsInt();
+        }
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java
index 36d2cc8df160..2f9179fd078f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArray.java
@@ -187,7 +187,7 @@ public boolean containsKey(K key) {
      * A private class representing a key-value pair (node) in the hash map.
      */
     public class Node {
-        K key;
+        final K key;
         V value;
 
         /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java
index 89e25f4eb0f7..9ede3c0cd507 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/GenericHashMapUsingArrayList.java
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ public String toString() {
      * A private inner class representing a key-value pair (node) in the hash map.
      */
     private class Node {
-        K key;
+        final K key;
         V val;
 
         /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java
index 8bcf00730acb..1f80416acadd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/HashMapCuckooHashing.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * Cuckoo hashing is a type of open-addressing hash table that resolves collisions
  * by relocating existing keys. It utilizes two hash functions to minimize collisions
  * and automatically resizes the table when the load factor exceeds 0.7.
- *
+ * 

  * For more information on cuckoo hashing, refer to
  * this Wikipedia page.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java
index 5760d39f1df7..ade05d4075e8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/hashmap/hashing/Intersection.java
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ private Intersection() {
     /**
      * Computes the intersection of two integer arrays, preserving element frequency.
      * For example, given [1,2,2,3] and [2,2,4], the result will be [2,2].
-     *
+     * 

      * Steps:
      * 1. Count the occurrences of each element in the first array using a map.
      * 2. Iterate over the second array and collect common elements.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java
index 834de9c77881..79c6ad75c28a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/FibonacciHeap.java
@@ -196,8 +196,7 @@ public void delete(HeapNode x) {
      * @pre heap contains x
      */
     private void decreaseKey(HeapNode x, int delta) {
-        int newKey = x.getKey() - delta;
-        x.key = newKey;
+        x.key = x.getKey() - delta;
         if (x.isRoot()) { // no parent to x
             this.updateMin(x);
             return;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueue.java
index ad7229760fd0..5a1db5b14971 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueue.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 import java.util.IdentityHashMap;
 import java.util.Objects;
 import java.util.function.Consumer;
-
+import java.util.HashMap;
 /**
  * An addressable (indexed) min-priority queue with O(log n) updates.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java
index 7ad92e8ba3c1..5e34a141fe50 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/KthElementFinder.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ private KthElementFinder() {
     /**
      * Finds the Kth largest element in the given array.
      * Uses a min-heap of size K to track the largest K elements.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(n * log(k)), where n is the size of the input array.
      * Space Complexity: O(k), as we maintain a heap of size K.
      *
@@ -33,13 +33,13 @@ public static int findKthLargest(int[] nums, int k) {
                 minHeap.poll();
             }
         }
-        return minHeap.peek();
+        return minHeap.element();
     }
 
     /**
      * Finds the Kth smallest element in the given array.
      * Uses a max-heap of size K to track the smallest K elements.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(n * log(k)), where n is the size of the input array.
      * Space Complexity: O(k), as we maintain a heap of size K.
      *
@@ -55,6 +55,6 @@ public static int findKthSmallest(int[] nums, int k) {
                 maxHeap.poll();
             }
         }
-        return maxHeap.peek();
+        return maxHeap.element();
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java
index 5b4b29cf1c2d..ffac21e8ec6f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MaxHeap.java
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@
  * A Max Heap implementation where each node's key is higher than or equal to its children's keys.
  * This data structure provides O(log n) time complexity for insertion and deletion operations,
  * and O(1) for retrieving the maximum element.
- *
+ * 

  * Properties:
  * 1. Complete Binary Tree
  * 2. Parent node's key ≥ Children nodes' keys
  * 3. Root contains the maximum element
- *
+ * 

  * Example usage:
  * 
  * List elements = Arrays.asList(
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java
index 4e74aaec4a10..d5dae3e51eb9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MedianFinder.java
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.heaps;
 
+import java.util.NoSuchElementException;
 import java.util.PriorityQueue;
 
 /**
@@ -7,21 +8,22 @@
  * two heaps: a max-heap and a min-heap. The max-heap stores the smaller half
  * of the numbers, and the min-heap stores the larger half.
  * This data structure ensures that retrieving the median is efficient.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity:
  * - Adding a number: O(log n) due to heap insertion.
  * - Finding the median: O(1).
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(n), where n is the total number of elements added.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
  */
 public final class MedianFinder {
+
     MedianFinder() {
     }
 
-    private PriorityQueue minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>();
-    private PriorityQueue maxHeap = new PriorityQueue<>((a, b) -> b - a);
+    private final PriorityQueue minHeap = new PriorityQueue<>();
+    private final PriorityQueue maxHeap = new PriorityQueue<>((a, b) -> b - a);
 
     /**
      * Adds a new number to the data stream. The number is placed in the appropriate
@@ -29,8 +31,10 @@ public final class MedianFinder {
      *
      * @param num the number to be added to the data stream
      */
-    public void addNum(int num) {
-        if (maxHeap.isEmpty() || num <= maxHeap.peek()) {
+    public void addNum(final int num) {
+        // element() throws NoSuchElementException instead of returning null,
+        // so the null-peek warning is eliminated entirely.
+        if (maxHeap.isEmpty() || num <= maxHeap.element()) {
             maxHeap.offer(num);
         } else {
             minHeap.offer(num);
@@ -49,11 +53,15 @@ public void addNum(int num) {
      * median is the middle element from the max-heap.
      *
      * @return the median of the numbers in the data stream
+     * @throws NoSuchElementException if no numbers have been added yet
      */
     public double findMedian() {
+        if (maxHeap.isEmpty()) {
+            throw new NoSuchElementException("Median is undefined for an empty data stream");
+        }
         if (maxHeap.size() == minHeap.size()) {
-            return (maxHeap.peek() + minHeap.peek()) / 2.0;
+            return (maxHeap.element() + minHeap.element()) / 2.0;
         }
-        return maxHeap.peek();
+        return maxHeap.element();
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java
index e41711f05914..de485307afa2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MergeKSortedArrays.java
@@ -6,10 +6,10 @@
 /**
  * This class provides a method to merge multiple sorted arrays into a single sorted array.
  * It utilizes a min-heap to efficiently retrieve the smallest elements from each array.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n * log k), where n is the total number of elements across all arrays
  * and k is the number of arrays.
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(k) for the heap, where k is the number of arrays.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java
index 3a4822142b5f..3ab849aee953 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/MinHeap.java
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@
  * A Min Heap implementation where each node's key is lower than or equal to its children's keys.
  * This data structure provides O(log n) time complexity for insertion and deletion operations,
  * and O(1) for retrieving the minimum element.
- *
+ * 

  * Properties:
  * 1. Complete Binary Tree
  * 2. Parent node's key ≤ Children nodes' keys
  * 3. Root contains the minimum element
- *
+ * 

  * Example usage:
  * ```java
  * List elements = Arrays.asList(
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java
index 72a12cd58401..858623b767b6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircleLinkedList.java
@@ -3,14 +3,11 @@
 /**
  * This class is a circular singly linked list implementation. In a circular linked list,
  * the last node points back to the first node, creating a circular chain.
- *
  * 
This implementation includes basic operations such as appending elements
  * to the end, removing elements from a specified position, and converting
  * the list to a string representation.
- *
  * @param  the type of elements held in this list
  */
-@SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
 public class CircleLinkedList {
 
     /**
@@ -21,7 +18,7 @@ public class CircleLinkedList {
     static final class Node {
 
         Node next;
-        E value;
+        final E value;
 
         private Node(E value, Node next) {
             this.value = value;
@@ -120,7 +117,6 @@ public E remove(int pos) {
         if (destroy == tail) {
             tail = before;
         }
-        destroy = null;
         size--;
         return saved;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java
index fbb48854c449..c825528aadaf 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CircularDoublyLinkedList.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
  * the last node points back to the first node and the first node points back to
  * the last node,
  * creating a circular chain in both directions.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation includes basic operations such as appending elements to
  * the end,
  * removing elements from a specified position, and converting the list to a
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ public class CircularDoublyLinkedList {
     static final class Node {
         Node next;
         Node prev;
-        E value;
+        final E value;
 
         private Node(E value, Node next, Node prev) {
             this.value = value;
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ private Node(E value, Node next, Node prev) {
     }
 
     private int size;
-    Node head = null;
+    Node head;
 
     /**
      * Initializes a new circular doubly linked list. A dummy head node is used for
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java
index 3902d08bfd14..da3abcb183dd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/CreateAndDetectLoop.java
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ private CreateAndDetectLoop() {
      * data and a reference to the next node.
      */
     static final class Node {
-        int data;
+        final int data;
         Node next;
 
         Node(int data) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java
index 58898ddc0fcf..affab2a4915e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/DoublyLinkedList.java
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ class Link {
     /**
      * Value of node
      */
-    public int value;
+    public final int value;
     /**
      * This points to the link in front of the new link
      */
@@ -293,7 +293,6 @@ public Link deleteTail() {
      * Delete the element from somewhere in the list
      *
      * @param x element to be deleted
-     * @return Link deleted
      */
     public void delete(int x) {
         Link current = head;
@@ -379,10 +378,9 @@ public void removeDuplicates(DoublyLinkedList l) {
     public void reverse() {
         // Keep references to the head and tail
         Link thisHead = this.head;
-        Link thisTail = this.tail;
 
         // Flip the head and tail references
-        this.head = thisTail;
+        this.head = this.tail;
         this.tail = thisHead;
 
         // While the link we're visiting is not null, flip the
@@ -390,8 +388,7 @@ public void reverse() {
         Link nextLink = thisHead;
         while (nextLink != null) {
             Link nextLinkNext = nextLink.next;
-            Link nextLinkPrevious = nextLink.previous;
-            nextLink.next = nextLinkPrevious;
+            nextLink.next = nextLink.previous;
             nextLink.previous = nextLinkNext;
 
             // Now, we want to go to the next link
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java
index 3c4106f178b9..6264815ffad3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/FlattenMultilevelLinkedList.java
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.lists;
 /**
  * Implements an algorithm to flatten a multilevel linked list.
- *
+ * 

  * In this specific problem structure, each node has a `next` pointer (to the
  * next node at the same level) and a `child` pointer (which points to the head
  * of another sorted linked list). The goal is to merge all these lists into a
  * single, vertically sorted linked list using the `child` pointer.
- *
+ * 

  * The approach is a recursive one that leverages a merge utility, similar to
  * the merge step in Merge Sort. It recursively flattens the list starting from
  * the rightmost node and merges each node's child list with the already
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ private FlattenMultilevelLinkedList() {
      * reference to the head of a child list.
      */
     static class Node {
-        int data;
+        final int data;
         Node next;
         Node child;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java
index 0f5c50530d92..983d57c73381 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeKSortedLinkedList.java
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@
  *
  * 
This class is designed to handle nodes of integer linked lists and can be expanded for additional data types if needed.

  *
- * @author Arun Pandey (https://github.com/pandeyarun709)
+ * @author Arun Pandey (...)
  */
 public class MergeKSortedLinkedList {
 
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ Node mergeKList(Node[] a, int n) {
      * Represents a node in the linked list.
      */
     static class Node {
-        int data;
+        final int data;
         Node next;
 
         Node(int data) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java
index 09eb854c8dc2..effcc840d6ef 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MergeSortedArrayList.java
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@
  *
  * 
This implementation assumes the input lists are already sorted in ascending order.

  *
- * @author https://github.com/shellhub
+ * @author ...
  * @see List
  */
 public final class MergeSortedArrayList {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MiddleOfLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MiddleOfLinkedList.java
index 0ee788db2ff9..a4c6bd26c026 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MiddleOfLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/MiddleOfLinkedList.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
  *
  * 
This method does not modify the input list.

  *
- * 
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_detection#Floyd's_tortoise_and_hare

+ * 
Reference: ...'s_tortoise_and_hare

  *
  * 
Complexity:

  * 
    
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java
index dac88dd9f241..1d3a2c056f24 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RandomNode.java
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ public class RandomNode {
 
     static class ListNode {
 
-        int val;
+        final int val;
         ListNode next;
 
         ListNode(int val) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java
index 9b9464d388b5..51043229107a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroup.java
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@
  * 

  * 

  *
- * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 public class ReverseKGroup {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java
index 47ee5397097c..d672f3011964 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedLists.java
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@
  * 
  * 

  *
- * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 public class RotateSinglyLinkedLists {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java
index ff4af4437cc7..f4062f933514 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedList.java
@@ -263,7 +263,6 @@ public void deleteDuplicates() {
                 }
                 // skip all duplicates
                 pred.next = newHead.next;
-                newHead = null;
                 // otherwise, move predecessor
             }
             // move forward
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java
index e515c9e4adc4..38b0ce70accf 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SortedLinkedList.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
  * 

  * 

  * Further information can be found here:
- * https://runestone.academy/ns/books/published/cppds/LinearLinked/ImplementinganOrderedList.html
+ * ...
  * 

  *
  * Usage Example:
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java
index 9d803003c658..a423ce6884bf 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/TortoiseHareAlgo.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 public class TortoiseHareAlgo {
     static final class Node {
         Node next;
-        E value;
+        final E value;
 
         private Node(E value, Node next) {
             this.value = value;
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ private Node(E value, Node next) {
         }
     }
 
-    private Node head = null;
+    private Node head;
 
     public TortoiseHareAlgo() {
         head = null;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java
index 4cfa2b442ca0..a4e4e0fc2272 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Deque.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ public class Deque {
      * Node for the deque
      */
     private static class DequeNode {
-        S val;
+        final S val;
         DequeNode next = null;
         DequeNode prev = null;
 
@@ -59,12 +59,11 @@ public void addLast(T val) {
         DequeNode newNode = new DequeNode<>(val);
         if (tail == null) {
             head = newNode;
-            tail = newNode;
         } else {
             newNode.prev = tail;
             tail.next = newNode;
-            tail = newNode;
         }
+        tail = newNode;
         size++;
     }
 
@@ -196,7 +195,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
 
         int dequeSize = myDeque.size();
         for (int i = 0; i < dequeSize; i++) {
-            int removing = -1;
+            int removing;
             if (i / 39.0 < 0.5) {
                 removing = myDeque.pollFirst();
             } else {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java
index 6ba16199dbb8..3168a6f45b61 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/LinkedQueue.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ public class LinkedQueue implements Iterable {
      * Node class representing each element in the queue.
      */
     private static class Node {
-        T data;
+        final T data;
         Node next;
 
         Node(T data) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java
index b877a5843b98..19df6ffc278a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/PriorityQueues.java
@@ -9,18 +9,18 @@
  * give numbers that are bigger, a higher priority. Queues in theory have no
  * fixed size but when using an array implementation it does.
  * 

- * Additional contributions made by: PuneetTri(https://github.com/PuneetTri)
+ * Additional contributions made by: PuneetTri(...)
  */
 class PriorityQueue {
 
     /**
      * The max size of the queue
      */
-    private int maxSize;
+    private final int maxSize;
     /**
      * The array for the queue
      */
-    private int[] queueArray;
+    private final int[] queueArray;
     /**
      * How many items are in the queue
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java
index 046b79a020ed..0ab41d497a67 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/Queue.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * This class implements a Queue data structure using an array.
  * A queue is a first-in-first-out (FIFO) data structure where elements are
  * added to the rear and removed from the front.
- *
+ * 

  * Note: This implementation is not thread-safe.
  */
 public final class Queue {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java
index 999c963fab93..c2a9ee4467be 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/TokenBucket.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * This class is used to control the rate of requests in a distributed system.
  * It allows a certain number of requests (tokens) to be processed in a time frame,
  * based on the defined refill rate.
- *
+ * 

  * Applications: Computer networks, API rate limiting, distributed systems, etc.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java
index bbcdfe1cc2a8..66c68f0b09e0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStack.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ public class NodeStack {
      * Node class representing each element in the stack.
      */
     private class Node {
-        Item data;
+        final Item data;
         Node previous;
 
         Node(Item data) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java
index d87f5f4ea86a..320f5dc938ee 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/ReverseStack.java
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ public static void reverseStack(Stack stack) {
      * Inserts the specified element at the bottom of the stack.
      *
      * 
This method is a helper for {@link #reverseStack(Stack)}.
-     *
+     * 

      * Steps:
      * 1. If the stack is empty, push the element and return.
      * 2. Remove the top element from the stack.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java
index c12097dfa28c..4cb3889c66c5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/StackOfLinkedList.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ private StackOfLinkedList() {
 
 // A node class for the linked list
 class Node {
-    public int data;
+    public final int data;
     public Node next;
 
     Node(int data) {
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ public int pop() {
         Node destroy = head;
         head = head.next;
         int retValue = destroy.data;
-        destroy = null; // Help garbage collection
+        // Help garbage collection
         size--;
         return retValue;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java
index 07fc5c87b6c4..ba87106f0ca1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLSimple.java
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ public class AVLSimple {
 
     private class Node {
 
-        int data;
+        final int data;
         int height;
         Node left;
         Node right;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java
index 77ee5d5fa23e..27509ee1a16b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/AVLTree.java
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ public void delete(int delKey) {
         }
 
         // Find the node to be deleted
-        Node node = root;
+        Node node;
         Node child = root;
         while (child != null) {
             node = child;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java
index 1962eaa0a106..a130ee019fff 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTFromSortedArray.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Given a sorted array. Create a balanced binary search tree from it.
- *
+ * 

  * Steps: 1. Find the middle element of array. This will act as root 2. Use the
  * left half recursively to create left subtree 3. Use the right half
  * recursively to create right subtree
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java
index 2c94224ddeb4..0538474a5404 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGeneric.java
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@
  *
  * 

  * A recursive implementation of generic type BST.
- *
  * Reference: Wiki links for BST
  * 

  *
@@ -58,8 +57,7 @@ private void prettyDisplay(Node node, int level) {
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println("Testing for integer data...");
         // Integer
-        BSTRecursiveGeneric integerTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric();
-
+        BSTRecursiveGeneric integerTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric<>();
         integerTree.add(5);
         integerTree.add(10);
         integerTree.add(-9);
@@ -94,7 +92,20 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         System.out.println();
         System.out.println("Testing for string data...");
         // String
-        BSTRecursiveGeneric stringTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric();
+        BSTRecursiveGeneric stringTree = getStringBSTRecursiveGeneric();
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        stringTree.prettyDisplay();
+        /*
+     Will print in following order
+     banana hills India pineapple
+         */
+        stringTree.inorder();
+        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
+        stringTree.prettyDisplay();
+    }
+
+    private static BSTRecursiveGeneric getStringBSTRecursiveGeneric() {
+        BSTRecursiveGeneric stringTree = new BSTRecursiveGeneric<>();
 
         stringTree.add("banana");
         stringTree.add("apple");
@@ -110,19 +121,11 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         stringTree.remove("boy");
         assert !stringTree.find("boy")
             : "Since boy was not present so deleting would do no change";
-        stringTree.add("india");
+        stringTree.add("India");
         stringTree.add("hills");
         assert stringTree.find("hills")
             : "hills was inserted but not found";
-        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
-        stringTree.prettyDisplay();
-        /*
-     Will print in following order
-     banana hills india pineapple
-         */
-        stringTree.inorder();
-        System.out.println("Pretty Display of current tree is:");
-        stringTree.prettyDisplay();
+        return stringTree;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -184,7 +187,6 @@ private Node insert(Node node, T data) {
 
     /**
      * Recursively print Preorder traversal of the BST
-     *
      * @param node the root node
      */
     private void preOrder(Node node) {
@@ -241,7 +243,7 @@ private void inOrder(Node node) {
      * elements to argument list.
      *
      * @param node the root node
-     * @param sortedList the list to add the srted elements into
+     * @param sortedList the list to add the sorted elements into
      */
     private void inOrderSort(Node node, List sortedList) {
         if (node == null) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java
index 2c19253b45e7..9ea8cbb28e9c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BTree.java
@@ -2,23 +2,18 @@
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 
-/**
- * Implementation of a B-Tree, a self-balancing tree data structure that maintains sorted data
- * and allows searches, sequential access, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic time.
- *
- * B-Trees are generalizations of binary search trees in that a node can have more than two children.
- * They're widely used in databases and file systems.
- *
- * For more information: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-tree
- */
-
+/// Implementation of a B-Tree, a self-balancing tree data structure that maintains sorted data
+/// and allows searches, sequential access, insertions, and deletions in logarithmic time.
+/// B-Trees are generalizations of binary search trees in that a node can have more than two children.
+/// They're widely used in databases and file systems.
+/// For more information: [...](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-tree)
 public class BTree {
     static class BTreeNode {
-        int[] keys;
-        int t; // Minimum degree (defines range for number of keys)
-        BTreeNode[] children;
+        final int[] keys;
+        final int t; // Minimum degree (defines range for number of keys)
+        final BTreeNode[] children;
         int n; // Current number of keys
-        boolean leaf;
+        final boolean leaf;
 
         BTreeNode(int t, boolean leaf) {
             this.t = t;
@@ -245,14 +240,10 @@ private void merge(int idx) {
 
             child.keys[t - 1] = keys[idx];
 
-            for (int i = 0; i < sibling.n; ++i) {
-                child.keys[i + t] = sibling.keys[i];
-            }
+            if (sibling.n >= 0) System.arraycopy(sibling.keys, 0, child.keys, 0 + t, sibling.n);
 
             if (!child.leaf) {
-                for (int i = 0; i <= sibling.n; ++i) {
-                    child.children[i + t] = sibling.children[i];
-                }
+                if (sibling.n + 1 >= 0) System.arraycopy(sibling.children, 0, child.children, 0 + t, sibling.n + 1);
             }
 
             for (int i = idx + 1; i < n; ++i) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeToString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeToString.java
index 2f9b3b489d56..e170bd518adf 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeToString.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BinaryTreeToString.java
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@
 
 /**
  * Leetcode 606: Construct String from Binary Tree:
- * https://leetcode.com/problems/construct-string-from-binary-tree/
- *
+ * ...
+ * 

  * Utility class to convert a {@link BinaryTree} into its string representation.
  * 

  * The conversion follows a preorder traversal pattern (root → left → right)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java
index fff84111663b..28adb5fa1fca 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CeilInBinarySearchTree.java
@@ -5,20 +5,20 @@
 /**
  * Problem Statement Ceil value for any number x in a collection is a number y
  * which is either equal to x or the least greater number than x.
- *
+ * 

  * Problem: Given a binary search tree containing positive integer values. Find
  * ceil value for a given key in O(lg(n)) time. In case if it is not present
  * return -1.
- *
+ * 

  * Ex.1. [30,20,40,10,25,35,50] represents level order traversal of a binary
  * search tree. Find ceil for 10. Answer: 20
- *
+ * 

  * Ex.2. [30,20,40,10,25,35,50] represents level order traversal of a binary
  * search tree. Find ceil for 22 Answer: 25
- *
+ * 

  * Ex.2. [30,20,40,10,25,35,50] represents level order traversal of a binary
  * search tree. Find ceil for 52 Answer: -1
- *
+ * 

  * Solution 1: Brute Force Solution: Do an inorder traversal and save result
  * into an array. Iterate over the array to get an element equal to or greater
  * than current key. Time Complexity: O(n) Space Complexity: O(n) for auxiliary
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CentroidDecomposition.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CentroidDecomposition.java
index 0b29dd6f5f5e..1f39b8cd1358 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CentroidDecomposition.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CentroidDecomposition.java
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ public static final class CentroidTree {
         private final int[] parent;
         private final int[] subtreeSize;
         private final boolean[] removed;
-        private int root;
+        private final int root;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a centroid tree from an adjacency list.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java
index 17d84bf11d54..4f74c18683cd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/CheckTreeIsSymmetric.java
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
  *                2                           2
  *         /                \             /             \
  *      3                    4         4                3
- *
+ * 

  * Below is not symmetric because values is different in last level
  *                               1
  *                   /                         \
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java
index 5378a01f6642..2b545721c5de 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/FenwickTree.java
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@
 
 public class FenwickTree {
 
-    private int n;
-    private int[] fenTree;
+    private final int n;
+    private final int[] fenTree;
 
     /* Constructor which takes the size of the array as a parameter */
     public FenwickTree(int n) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java
index 7d969a59def0..b644b51aa2fd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/GenericTree.java
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ public class GenericTree {
     private static final class Node {
 
         int data;
-        ArrayList child = new ArrayList<>();
+        final ArrayList child = new ArrayList<>();
     }
 
     private final Node root;
@@ -224,14 +224,15 @@ public void removeleavescall() {
     private void removeleaves(Node node) {
         ArrayList arr = new ArrayList<>();
         for (int i = 0; i < node.child.size(); i++) {
-            if (node.child.get(i).child.size() == 0) {
+            if (node.child.get(i).child.isEmpty()) {
                 arr.add(i);
             } else {
                 removeleaves(node.child.get(i));
             }
         }
         for (int i = arr.size() - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-            node.child.remove(arr.get(i) + 0);
+            int indexToRemove = arr.get(i); // Automatically unboxes Integer to int
+            node.child.remove(indexToRemove); // Safely calls remove(int index)
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/HeavyLightDecomposition.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/HeavyLightDecomposition.java
index ed67f9ae3394..b4c3df96740e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/HeavyLightDecomposition.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/HeavyLightDecomposition.java
@@ -8,20 +8,20 @@
  * HLD is used to efficiently handle path queries on trees, such as maximum,
  * sum, or updates. It decomposes the tree into heavy and light chains,
  * enabling queries in O(log N) time.
- * Wikipedia Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy-light_decomposition
+ * Wikipedia Reference: ...
  * Author: Nithin U.
- * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ * Github: ...
  */
 
 public class HeavyLightDecomposition {
-    private List> tree;
-    private int[] parent;
-    private int[] depth;
-    private int[] subtreeSize;
-    private int[] chainHead;
-    private int[] position;
-    private int[] nodeValue;
-    private int[] segmentTree;
+    private final List> tree;
+    private final int[] parent;
+    private final int[] depth;
+    private final int[] subtreeSize;
+    private final int[] chainHead;
+    private final int[] position;
+    private final int[] nodeValue;
+    private final int[] segmentTree;
     private int positionIndex;
 
     public HeavyLightDecomposition(int n) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java
index 5a001ff9ab9f..f238047b6d37 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/InorderTraversal.java
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@
 /**
  * Given tree is traversed in an 'inorder' way: LEFT -> ROOT -> RIGHT.
  * Below are given the recursive and iterative implementations.
- *
+ * 

  * Complexities:
  * Recursive: O(n) - time, O(n) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree.
- *
+ * 

  * Iterative: O(n) - time, O(h) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree
  * and 'h' is the height of a binary tree.
  * In the worst case 'h' can be O(n) if tree is completely unbalanced, for instance:
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java
index 5190e82f74ef..1c6f697fd7e1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/KDTree.java
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ public class KDTree {
 
     static class Point {
 
-        int[] coordinates;
+        final int[] coordinates;
 
         public int getCoordinate(int i) {
             return coordinates[i];
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ public static int comparableDistanceExceptAxis(Point p1, Point p2, int axis) {
     static class Node {
 
         private Point point;
-        private int axis; // 0 for x, 1 for y, 2 for z, etc.
+        private final int axis; // 0 for x, 1 for y, 2 for z, etc.
 
         private Node left = null; // Left child
         private Node right = null; // Right child
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java
index 3aceac4d1852..46f82a233a11 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PreOrderTraversal.java
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@
 /**
  * Given tree is traversed in a 'pre-order' way: ROOT -> LEFT -> RIGHT.
  * Below are given the recursive and iterative implementations.
- *
+ * 

  * Complexities:
  * Recursive: O(n) - time, O(n) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree.
- *
+ * 

  * Iterative: O(n) - time, O(h) - space, where 'n' is the number of nodes in a tree
  * and 'h' is the height of a binary tree.
  * In the worst case 'h' can be O(n) if tree is completely unbalanced, for instance:
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java
index 3ef664f3fa7d..e2d51e892d15 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/PrintTopViewofTree.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ class TreeNode {
 
     // Members
 
-    int key;
+    final int key;
     TreeNode left;
     TreeNode right;
 
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ class TreeNode {
 // distance of node from root
 class QItem {
 
-    TreeNode node;
-    int hd;
+    final TreeNode node;
+    final int hd;
 
     QItem(TreeNode n, int h) {
         node = n;
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ class QItem {
 // Class for a Binary Tree
 class Tree {
 
-    TreeNode root;
+    final TreeNode root;
 
     // Constructors
     Tree() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java
index e0d255b1e784..e55d4e238243 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTree.java
@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@
  * @author Sailok Chinta
  */
 class Point {
-    public double x;
-    public double y;
+    public final double x;
+    public final double y;
 
     Point(double x, double y) {
         this.x = x;
@@ -26,8 +26,8 @@ class Point {
  * @author Sailok Chinta
  */
 class BoundingBox {
-    public Point center;
-    public double halfWidth;
+    public final Point center;
+    public final double halfWidth;
 
     BoundingBox(Point center, double halfWidth) {
         this.center = center;
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ public boolean intersectsBoundingBox(BoundingBox otherBoundingBox) {
 /**
  * QuadTree is a tree data structure that is used to store spatial information
  * in an efficient way.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation is specific to Point QuadTrees
  *
  * @see Quad Tree
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ public class QuadTree {
     private final BoundingBox boundary;
     private final int capacity;
 
-    private List pointList;
+    private final List pointList;
     private boolean divided;
     private QuadTree northWest;
     private QuadTree northEast;
@@ -128,11 +128,7 @@ public boolean insert(Point point) {
             return true;
         }
 
-        if (southEast.insert(point)) {
-            return true;
-        }
-
-        return false;
+        return southEast.insert(point);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java
index 01222b739ff0..60acf01d2b76 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/RedBlackBST.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ public class RedBlackBST {
 
     private class Node {
 
-        int key = -1;
+        int key;
         int color = BLACK;
         Node left = nil;
         Node right = nil;
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ private void insert(Node node) {
 
     private void fixTree(Node node) {
         while (node.p.color == RED) {
-            Node y = nil;
+            Node y;
             if (node.p == node.p.p.left) {
                 y = node.p.p.right;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java
index cff27c12f1ca..fff2b9c53a4a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SameTreesCheck.java
@@ -52,12 +52,12 @@ public static boolean check(BinaryTree.Node p, BinaryTree.Node q) {
             BinaryTree.Node second = q2.poll();
             // check that some node can be null
             // if the check is true: both nodes are null or both nodes are not null
-            if (!equalNodes(first, second)) {
+            if (equalNodes(first, second)) {
                 return false;
             }
 
             if (first != null) {
-                if (!equalNodes(first.left, second.left)) {
+                if (equalNodes(first.left, second.left)) {
                     return false;
                 }
                 if (first.left != null) {
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ public static boolean check(BinaryTree.Node p, BinaryTree.Node q) {
                     q2.add(second.left);
                 }
 
-                if (!equalNodes(first.right, second.right)) {
+                if (equalNodes(first.right, second.right)) {
                     return false;
                 }
                 if (first.right != null) {
@@ -79,11 +79,11 @@ public static boolean check(BinaryTree.Node p, BinaryTree.Node q) {
 
     private static boolean equalNodes(BinaryTree.Node p, BinaryTree.Node q) {
         if (p == null && q == null) {
-            return true;
+            return false;
         }
         if (p == null || q == null) {
-            return false;
+            return true;
         }
-        return p.data == q.data;
+        return p.data != q.data;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java
index 57b3edc163ca..121fcac6da29 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree.java
@@ -2,9 +2,9 @@
 
 public class SegmentTree {
 
-    private int[] segTree;
+    private final int[] segTree;
     private int n;
-    private int[] arr;
+    private final int[] arr;
 
     /* Constructor which takes the size of the array and the array as a parameter*/
     public SegmentTree(int n, int[] arr) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree2D.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree2D.java
index 40b9e8a73533..428ee150debc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree2D.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SegmentTree2D.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * 2D Segment Tree (Tree of Trees) implementation.
  * This data structure supports point updates and submatrix sum queries
  * in a 2D grid. It achieves this by nesting 1D Segment Trees within a 1D Segment Tree.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity:
  * - Build/Initialization: O(N * M)
  * - Point Update: O(log N * log M)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java
index 2668b609aedc..585f18068887 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/SplayTree.java
@@ -1,33 +1,22 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.trees;
 
+import java.io.Serial;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
  * Implementation of a Splay Tree data structure.
- *
- * A splay tree is a self-adjusting binary search tree with the additional
- * property
+ * 

+ * A splay tree is a self-adjusting binary search tree with the additional property
  * that recently accessed elements are quick to access again. It performs basic
- * operations such as insertion, deletion, and searching in O(log n) amortized
- * time,
- * where n is the number of elements in the tree.
- *
- * The key feature of splay trees is the splay operation, which moves a node
- * closer
- * to the root of the tree when it is accessed. This operation helps to maintain
- * good balance and improves the overall performance of the tree. After
- * performing
- * a splay operation, the accessed node becomes the new root of the tree.
- *
- * Splay trees have applications in various areas, including caching, network
- * routing,
- * and dynamic optimality analysis.
+ * operations such as insertion, deletion, and searching in O(log n) amortized time.
  */
 public class SplayTree {
-    public static final TreeTraversal PRE_ORDER = new PreOrderTraversal();
-    public static final TreeTraversal IN_ORDER = new InOrderTraversal();
-    public static final TreeTraversal POST_ORDER = new PostOrderTraversal();
+
+    // Preserved public API constants
+    public static final TreeTraversal PRE_ORDER = TraversalStrategy.PRE_ORDER;
+    public static final TreeTraversal IN_ORDER = TraversalStrategy.IN_ORDER;
+    public static final TreeTraversal POST_ORDER = TraversalStrategy.POST_ORDER;
 
     private Node root;
 
@@ -57,15 +46,18 @@ public void insert(final int key) {
      * @return True if the key is found, otherwise false.
      */
     public boolean search(int key) {
+        if (isEmpty()) {
+            return false;
+        }
         root = splay(root, key);
-        return root != null && root.key == key;
+        return root.key == key;
     }
 
     /**
      * Deletes a key from the SplayTree.
      *
      * @param key The key to delete.
-     * @throws IllegalArgumentException If the tree is empty.
+     * @throws EmptyTreeException If the tree is empty.
      */
     public void delete(final int key) {
         if (isEmpty()) {
@@ -81,9 +73,9 @@ public void delete(final int key) {
         if (root.left == null) {
             root = root.right;
         } else {
-            Node temp = root;
+            Node rightSubtree = root.right;
             root = splay(root.left, findMax(root.left).key);
-            root.right = temp.right;
+            root.right = rightSubtree;
         }
     }
 
@@ -95,171 +87,96 @@ public void delete(final int key) {
      */
     public List traverse(TreeTraversal traversal) {
         List result = new LinkedList<>();
-        traversal.traverse(root, result);
+        // Safely delegate to the internal enum strategy, hiding Node exposure
+        if (traversal instanceof TraversalStrategy strategy) {
+            strategy.execute(root, result);
+        }
         return result;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Finds the node with the maximum key in a given subtree.
-     *
-     * 

-     * This method traverses the right children of the subtree until it finds the
-     * rightmost node, which contains the maximum key.
-     * 

-     *
-     * @param root The root node of the subtree.
-     * @return The node with the maximum key in the subtree.
-     */
-    private Node findMax(Node root) {
-        while (root.right != null) {
-            root = root.right;
+    private Node findMax(Node node) {
+        while (node.right != null) {
+            node = node.right;
         }
-        return root;
+        return node;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Zig operation.
-     *
-     * 

-     * The zig operation is used to perform a single rotation on a node to move it
-     * closer to
-     * the root of the tree. It is typically applied when the node is a left child
-     * of its parent
-     * and needs to be rotated to the right.
-     * 

-     *
-     * @param x The node to perform the zig operation on.
-     * @return The new root node after the operation.
+     * Zig operation (Right Rotation).
      */
-    private Node rotateRight(Node x) {
-        Node y = x.left;
-        x.left = y.right;
-        y.right = x;
-        return y;
+    private Node rotateRight(Node node) {
+        Node leftChild = node.left;
+        node.left = leftChild.right;
+        leftChild.right = node;
+        return leftChild;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Zag operation.
-     *
-     * 

-     * The zag operation is used to perform a single rotation on a node to move it
-     * closer to
-     * the root of the tree. It is typically applied when the node is a right child
-     * of its parent
-     * and needs to be rotated to the left.
-     * 

-     *
-     * @param x The node to perform the zag operation on.
-     * @return The new root node after the operation.
+     * Zag operation (Left Rotation).
      */
-    private Node rotateLeft(Node x) {
-        Node y = x.right;
-        x.right = y.left;
-        y.left = x;
-        return y;
+    private Node rotateLeft(Node node) {
+        Node rightChild = node.right;
+        node.right = rightChild.left;
+        rightChild.left = node;
+        return rightChild;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Splay operation.
-     *
-     * 

-     * The splay operation is the core operation of a splay tree. It moves a
-     * specified node
-     * closer to the root of the tree by performing a series of rotations. The goal
-     * of the splay
-     * operation is to improve the access time for frequently accessed nodes by
-     * bringing them
-     * closer to the root.
-     * 

-     *
-     * 

-     * The splay operation consists of three main cases:
-     * 
    
-     * 
  • Zig-Zig case: Perform two consecutive rotations.
    • 
-     * 
  • Zig-Zag case: Perform two consecutive rotations in opposite
-     * directions.
    • 
-     * 
  • Zag-Zag case: Perform two consecutive rotations.
    • 
-     * 

-     * 

-     *
-     * 

-     * After performing the splay operation, the accessed node becomes the new root
-     * of the tree.
-     * 

-     *
-     * @param root The root of the subtree to splay.
-     * @param key  The key to splay around.
-     * @return The new root of the splayed subtree.
+     * Splay operation. Moves the accessed node to the root.
      */
-    private Node splay(Node root, final int key) {
-        if (root == null || root.key == key) {
-            return root;
+    private Node splay(Node node, final int key) {
+        if (node == null || node.key == key) {
+            return node;
         }
 
-        if (root.key > key) {
-            if (root.left == null) {
-                return root;
+        if (node.key > key) {
+            if (node.left == null) {
+                return node;
             }
-            // Zig-Zig case
-            if (root.left.key > key) {
-                root.left.left = splay(root.left.left, key);
-                root = rotateRight(root);
-            } else if (root.left.key < key) {
-                root.left.right = splay(root.left.right, key);
-                if (root.left.right != null) {
-                    root.left = rotateLeft(root.left);
+            if (node.left.key > key) {
+                node.left.left = splay(node.left.left, key);
+                node = rotateRight(node);
+            } else if (node.left.key < key) {
+                node.left.right = splay(node.left.right, key);
+                if (node.left.right != null) {
+                    node.left = rotateLeft(node.left);
                 }
             }
-            return (root.left == null) ? root : rotateRight(root);
+            return (node.left == null) ? node : rotateRight(node);
         } else {
-            if (root.right == null) {
-                return root;
+            if (node.right == null) {
+                return node;
             }
-            // Zag-Zag case
-            if (root.right.key > key) {
-                root.right.left = splay(root.right.left, key);
-                if (root.right.left != null) {
-                    root.right = rotateRight(root.right);
+            if (node.right.key > key) {
+                node.right.left = splay(node.right.left, key);
+                if (node.right.left != null) {
+                    node.right = rotateRight(node.right);
                 }
-            } else if (root.right.key < key) {
-                root.right.right = splay(root.right.right, key);
-                root = rotateLeft(root);
+            } else if (node.right.key < key) {
+                node.right.right = splay(node.right.right, key);
+                node = rotateLeft(node);
             }
-            return (root.right == null) ? root : rotateLeft(root);
+            return (node.right == null) ? node : rotateLeft(node);
         }
     }
 
-    private Node insertRec(Node root, final int key) {
-        if (root == null) {
+    private Node insertRec(Node node, final int key) {
+        if (node == null) {
             return new Node(key);
         }
 
-        if (key < root.key) {
-            root.left = insertRec(root.left, key);
-        } else if (key > root.key) {
-            root.right = insertRec(root.right, key);
+        if (key < node.key) {
+            node.left = insertRec(node.left, key);
+        } else if (key > node.key) {
+            node.right = insertRec(node.right, key);
         } else {
             throw new DuplicateKeyException("Duplicate key: " + key);
         }
 
-        return root;
-    }
-
-    public static class EmptyTreeException extends RuntimeException {
-        private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
-
-        public EmptyTreeException(String message) {
-            super(message);
-        }
+        return node;
     }
 
-    public static class DuplicateKeyException extends RuntimeException {
-        private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
-
-        public DuplicateKeyException(String message) {
-            super(message);
-        }
-    }
+    // --- Inner Classes and Interfaces ---
 
     private static class Node {
         final int key;
@@ -268,57 +185,73 @@ private static class Node {
 
         Node(int key) {
             this.key = key;
-            left = null;
-            right = null;
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Public interface acting as a type token for traversals.
+     * No longer exposes internal Node architecture to the public API.
+     */
     public interface TreeTraversal {
-        /**
-         * Recursive function for a specific order traversal.
-         *
-         * @param root   The root of the subtree to traverse.
-         * @param result The list to store the traversal result.
-         */
-        void traverse(Node root, List result);
+        // Marker interface to preserve public API footprint
     }
 
-    private static final class InOrderTraversal implements TreeTraversal {
-        private InOrderTraversal() {
-        }
-
-        public void traverse(Node root, List result) {
-            if (root != null) {
-                traverse(root.left, result);
-                result.add(root.key);
-                traverse(root.right, result);
+    /**
+     * Private internal implementation of the traversal strategies.
+     * This keeps the 'Node' references completely encapsulated within SplayTree.
+     */
+    private enum TraversalStrategy implements TreeTraversal {
+        PRE_ORDER {
+            @Override
+            void execute(Node root, List result) {
+                if (root != null) {
+                    result.add(root.key);
+                    execute(root.left, result);
+                    execute(root.right, result);
+                }
             }
-        }
+        },
+        IN_ORDER {
+            @Override
+            void execute(Node root, List result) {
+                if (root != null) {
+                    execute(root.left, result);
+                    result.add(root.key);
+                    execute(root.right, result);
+                }
+            }
+        },
+        POST_ORDER {
+            @Override
+            void execute(Node root, List result) {
+                if (root != null) {
+                    execute(root.left, result);
+                    execute(root.right, result);
+                    result.add(root.key);
+                }
+            }
+        };
+
+        abstract void execute(Node root, List result);
     }
 
-    private static final class PreOrderTraversal implements TreeTraversal {
-        private PreOrderTraversal() {
-        }
+    // --- Custom Exceptions ---
 
-        public void traverse(Node root, List result) {
-            if (root != null) {
-                result.add(root.key);
-                traverse(root.left, result);
-                traverse(root.right, result);
-            }
+    public static class EmptyTreeException extends RuntimeException {
+        @Serial
+        private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
+
+        public EmptyTreeException(String message) {
+            super(message);
         }
     }
 
-    private static final class PostOrderTraversal implements TreeTraversal {
-        private PostOrderTraversal() {
-        }
+    public static class DuplicateKeyException extends RuntimeException {
+        @Serial
+        private static final long serialVersionUID = 1L;
 
-        public void traverse(Node root, List result) {
-            if (root != null) {
-                traverse(root.left, result);
-                traverse(root.right, result);
-                result.add(root.key);
-            }
+        public DuplicateKeyException(String message) {
+            super(message);
         }
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ThreadedBinaryTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ThreadedBinaryTree.java
index fd8876cecb70..878bb6565b40 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ThreadedBinaryTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ThreadedBinaryTree.java
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ public final class ThreadedBinaryTree {
     private Node root;
 
     private static final class Node {
-        int value;
+        final int value;
         Node left;
         Node right;
         boolean leftIsThread;
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ public void insert(int value) {
         }
 
         Node current = root;
-        Node parent = null;
+        Node parent;
 
         while (true) {
             parent = current;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java
index 1e5d551cc40b..5f0a0f2929ab 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Treap.java
@@ -15,21 +15,21 @@ public class Treap {
     public static class TreapNode {
         /**
          * TreapNode class defines the individual nodes in the Treap
-         *
+         * 

          * value -> holds the value of the node.
          * Binary Search Tree is built based on value.
-         *
+         * 

          * priority -> holds the priority of the node.
          * Heaps are maintained based on priority.
          * It is randomly assigned
-         *
+         * 

          * size -> holds the size of the subtree with current node as root
-         *
+         * 

          * left -> holds the left subtree
          * right -> holds the right subtree
          */
-        public int value;
-        private int priority;
+        public final int value;
+        private final int priority;
         private int size;
         public TreapNode left;
         public TreapNode right;
@@ -61,11 +61,11 @@ private void updateSize() {
      * random -> to generate random priority for the nodes in the Treap
      */
     private TreapNode root;
-    private Random random = new Random();
+    private final Random random = new Random();
 
     /**
      * Constructors
-     *
+     * 

      * Treap() -> create an empty Treap
      * Treap(int[] nodeValues) -> add the elements given in the array to the Treap
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java
index cf56731fb079..7b35a8c68238 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TreeRandomNode.java
@@ -34,9 +34,9 @@ private final class Node {
     }
 
     // Using an arraylist to store the inorder traversal of the given binary tree
-    static ArrayList list = new ArrayList<>();
+    static final ArrayList list = new ArrayList<>();
     // root of Tree
-    Node root;
+    final Node root;
 
     TreeRandomNode() {
         root = null;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java
index 02f28d4d83ad..de947ffa4f7d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/Trie.java
@@ -8,8 +8,8 @@
  * Each node also has a boolean value to indicate if it is the end of a word.
  */
 class TrieNode {
-    char value;
-    HashMap child;
+    final char value;
+    final HashMap child;
     boolean end;
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieAutocomplete.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieAutocomplete.java
index 624e3d65bfc1..101f42a09352 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieAutocomplete.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/TrieAutocomplete.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ class TrieAutocomplete {
     // Trie node
     static class TrieNode {
 
-        TrieNode[] children = new TrieNode[ALPHABET_SIZE];
+        final TrieNode[] children = new TrieNode[ALPHABET_SIZE];
 
         // isWordEnd is true if the node represents
         // end of a word
@@ -137,8 +137,7 @@ static int printAutoSuggestions(TrieNode root, final String query) {
         // If there are nodes below the last
         // matching character.
         if (!isLast) {
-            String prefix = query;
-            suggestionsRec(pCrawl, prefix);
+            suggestionsRec(pCrawl, query);
             return 1;
         }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java
index c1d15390d4b9..97064a51874f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/VerticalOrderTraversal.java
@@ -3,94 +3,73 @@
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.HashMap;
 import java.util.LinkedList;
+import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Map;
 import java.util.Queue;
 
-/* The following class implements a vertical order traversal
-in a tree from top to bottom and left to right, so for a tree :
-           1
-          / \
-         2   3
-        / \   \
-       4   5   6
-        \     / \
-         7   8   10
-          \
-           9
- the sequence will be :
- 4 2 7 1 5 9 3 8 6 10
+/**
+ * Implements a vertical order traversal in a tree from top to bottom
+ * and left to right.
  */
 public final class VerticalOrderTraversal {
+
     private VerticalOrderTraversal() {
     }
 
-    /*Function that receives a root Node and prints the tree
-        in Vertical Order.*/
-    public static ArrayList verticalTraversal(BinaryTree.Node root) {
+    /**
+     * Modern Java Record to encapsulate a node and its vertical column index.
+     * This replaces the bulky inner class and parallel queues.
+     */
+    private record NodeColumnPair(BinaryTree.Node node, int column) {}
+
+    /**
+     * Prints the tree in Vertical Order.
+     * Note: Visibility changed to package-private to match BinaryTree.Node.
+     * * @param root The root node of the binary tree.
+     * @return An ArrayList containing the vertical traversal order.
+     */
+    static ArrayList verticalTraversal(BinaryTree.Node root) {
         if (root == null) {
             return new ArrayList<>();
         }
 
-        /*Queue to store the Nodes.*/
-        Queue queue = new LinkedList<>();
-
-        /*Queue to store the index of particular vertical
-                 column of a tree , with root at 0, Nodes on left
-                 with negative index and Nodes on right with positive
-                 index. */
-        Queue index = new LinkedList<>();
+        Queue queue = new LinkedList<>();
+        Map> columnMap = new HashMap<>();
 
-        /*Map of Integer and ArrayList to store all the
-                 elements in a particular index in a single arrayList
-                 that will have a key equal to the index itself. */
-        Map> map = new HashMap<>();
+        int minColumn = 0;
+        int maxColumn = 0;
 
-        /* min and max stores leftmost and right most index to
-                 later print the tree in vertical fashion.*/
-        int max = 0;
-        int min = 0;
-        queue.offer(root);
-        index.offer(0);
+        queue.offer(new NodeColumnPair(root, 0));
 
         while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
-            if (queue.peek().left != null) {
-                /*Adding the left Node if it is not null
-                                and its index by subtracting 1 from it's
-                                parent's index*/
-                queue.offer(queue.peek().left);
-                index.offer(index.peek() - 1);
-            }
-            if (queue.peek().right != null) {
-                /*Adding the right Node if it is not null
-                                and its index by adding 1 from it's
-                                parent's index*/
-                queue.offer(queue.peek().right);
-                index.offer(index.peek() + 1);
+            NodeColumnPair current = queue.poll();
+
+            // Accessing record components uses method syntax '()'
+            BinaryTree.Node currentNode = current.node();
+            int currentColumn = current.column();
+
+            // Automatically create a new list if the column doesn't exist yet
+            columnMap.computeIfAbsent(currentColumn, k -> new ArrayList<>())
+                    .add(currentNode.data);
+
+            // Track bounds to avoid needing to sort map keys later
+            minColumn = Math.min(minColumn, currentColumn);
+            maxColumn = Math.max(maxColumn, currentColumn);
+
+            if (currentNode.left != null) {
+                queue.offer(new NodeColumnPair(currentNode.left, currentColumn - 1));
             }
-            /*If the map does not contains the index a new
-                         ArrayList is created with the index as key.*/
-            if (!map.containsKey(index.peek())) {
-                ArrayList a = new ArrayList<>();
-                map.put(index.peek(), a);
+
+            if (currentNode.right != null) {
+                queue.offer(new NodeColumnPair(currentNode.right, currentColumn + 1));
             }
-            /*For a index, corresponding Node data is added
-                         to the respective ArrayList present at that
-                         index. */
-            map.get(index.peek()).add(queue.peek().data);
-            max = Math.max(max, index.peek());
-            min = Math.min(min, index.peek());
-            /*The Node and its index are removed
-                         from their respective queues.*/
-            index.poll();
-            queue.poll();
         }
-        /*Finally map data is printed here which has keys
-                from min to max. Each ArrayList represents a
-                vertical column that is added in ans ArrayList.*/
-        ArrayList ans = new ArrayList<>();
-        for (int i = min; i <= max; i++) {
-            ans.addAll(map.get(i));
+
+        ArrayList result = new ArrayList<>();
+        for (int i = minColumn; i <= maxColumn; i++) {
+            result.addAll(columnMap.get(i));
         }
-        return ans;
+
+        return result;
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/WaveletTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/WaveletTree.java
index 6feaa6f35048..f644e4b86ae0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/WaveletTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/WaveletTree.java
@@ -11,8 +11,8 @@
 public class WaveletTree {
 
     private class Node {
-        int low;
-        int high;
+        final int low;
+        final int high;
         Node left;
         Node right;
         List leftCount; // Prefix sums of elements going to the left child
@@ -223,9 +223,8 @@ private int kthSmallest(Node node, int left, int right, int k) {
         int elementsToLeft = countLeftInR - countLeftInLMinus1;
 
         if (k <= elementsToLeft) {
-            int newL = countLeftInLMinus1;
             int newR = countLeftInR - 1;
-            return kthSmallest(node.left, newL, newR, k);
+            return kthSmallest(node.left, countLeftInLMinus1, newR, k);
         } else {
             int newL = left - countLeftInLMinus1;
             int newR = right - countLeftInR;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java
index 84fe0eb2c42a..2918b3f9e429 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/ZigzagTraversal.java
@@ -56,8 +56,9 @@ public static List> traverse(BinaryTree.Node root) {
             // traverse all the level nodes
             for (int i = 0; i < nodesOnLevel; i++) {
                 BinaryTree.Node node = q.poll();
+                assert node != null;
                 if (prevLevelFromLeftToRight) {
-                    level.add(0, node.data);
+                    level.addFirst(node.data);
                 } else {
                     level.add(node.data);
                 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java
index 6c53666e5856..f5559f990166 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/nearestRightKey.java
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ class NRKTree {
 
     public NRKTree left;
     public NRKTree right;
-    public int data;
+    public final int data;
 
     NRKTree(int x) {
         this.left = null;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java
index d69288f72200..5e186712e643 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/LargeTreeNode.java
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ public LargeTreeNode(E data) {
      *
      * @param data Value to which data will be initialized.
      * @param parentNode Value to which the nodes' parent reference will be set.
-     * @see TreeNode#TreeNode(Object, Node)
+     * @see TreeNode#TreeNode(Object, TreeNode)
      */
     public LargeTreeNode(E data, LargeTreeNode parentNode) {
         super(data, parentNode);
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ public LargeTreeNode(E data, LargeTreeNode parentNode) {
      * @param data Value to which data will be initialized.
      * @param parentNode Value to which the nodes' parent reference will be set.
      * @param childNodes {@link Collection} of child Nodes.
-     * @see TreeNode#TreeNode(Object, Node)
+     * @see TreeNode#TreeNode(Object, TreeNode)
      */
     public LargeTreeNode(E data, LargeTreeNode parentNode, Collection> childNodes) {
         super(data, parentNode);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/Node.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/Node.java
index a10817830962..d239db7d8b86 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/Node.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/Node.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Base class for any node implementation which contains a generic type
  * variable.
- *
+ * 

  * All known subclasses: {@link TreeNode}, {@link SimpleNode}.
  *
  * @param  The type of the data held in the Node.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleTreeNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleTreeNode.java
index eefffacee8d6..2cacb2f92a6a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleTreeNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/SimpleTreeNode.java
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ public SimpleTreeNode(E data) {
      *
      * @param data Value to which data will be initialized.
      * @param parentNode Value to which the nodes' parent reference will be set.
-     * @see TreeNode#TreeNode(Object, Node)
+     * @see TreeNode
      */
     public SimpleTreeNode(E data, SimpleTreeNode parentNode) {
         super(data, parentNode);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/TreeNode.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/TreeNode.java
index 1639bec6e5a0..4c00ed4180e7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/TreeNode.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/nodes/TreeNode.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Base class for any tree node which holds a reference to the parent node.
- *
+ * 

  * All known subclasses: {@link SimpleTreeNode}, {@link LargeTreeNode}.
  *
  * @param  The type of the data held in the Node.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java
index 36587a21c863..f12a23aea7d4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/MatrixSearchAlgorithm.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * The common interface of most searching algorithms that search in matrixes.
  *
- * @author Aitor Fidalgo (https://github.com/aitorfi)
+ * @author Aitor Fidalgo (...)
  */
 public interface MatrixSearchAlgorithm {
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java
index eb5b42756958..3166bceae039 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/devutils/searches/SearchAlgorithm.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * The common interface of most searching algorithms
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  */
 public interface SearchAlgorithm {
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java
index 323098a99887..7dc07726a387 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/ClosestPair.java
@@ -9,11 +9,11 @@ public final class ClosestPair {
     /**
      * Number of points
      */
-    int numberPoints;
+    final int numberPoints;
     /**
      * Input data, maximum 10000.
      */
-    Location[] array;
+    final Location[] array;
     /**
      * Minimum point coordinate.
      */
@@ -53,8 +53,8 @@ public static void setSecondCount(int secondCount) {
      */
     public static class Location {
 
-        double x;
-        double y;
+        final double x;
+        final double y;
 
         /**
          * @param xpar (IN Parameter) x coordinate 

diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java
index 0e8d9442138c..558b1bd2cb1b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/SkylineAlgorithm.java
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
  */
 public class SkylineAlgorithm {
 
-    private ArrayList points;
+    private final ArrayList points;
 
     /**
      * Main constructor of the application. ArrayList points gets created, which
@@ -127,8 +127,8 @@ public ArrayList produceFinalSkyLine(ArrayList left, ArrayList
  * Problem: Given two strings, `a` and `b`, determine if string `a` can be
  * transformed into string `b` by performing the following operations:
  * 1. Capitalize zero or more of `a`'s lowercase letters (i.e., convert them to uppercase).
  * 2. Delete any of the remaining lowercase letters from `a`.
- *
+ * 

  * The task is to determine whether it is possible to make string `a` equal to string `b`.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ private Abbreviation() {
      * @param b The target string containing only uppercase letters.
      * @return {@code true} if string `a` can be transformed into string `b`,
      *         {@code false} otherwise.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(n * m) where n = length of string `a` and m = length of string `b`.
      * Space Complexity: O(n * m) due to the dynamic programming table.
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java
index e7712b13a2b7..b7b2be19f2d4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/AllConstruct.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 /**
  * This class provides a solution to the "All Construct" problem.
- *
+ * 

  * The problem is to determine all the ways a target string can be constructed
  * from a given list of substrings. Each substring in the word bank can be used
  * multiple times, and the order of substrings matters.
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ private AllConstruct() {
      * from the given word bank.
      * Time Complexity: O(n * m * k), where n = length of the target,
      * m = number of words in wordBank, and k = average length of a word.
-     *
+     * 

      * Space Complexity: O(n * m) due to the size of the table storing combinations.
      *
      * @param target   The target string to construct.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java
index ccd54ee4349a..57a65989d338 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/BoundaryFill.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Java program for Boundary fill algorithm.
- * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ * @author Akshay Dubey (...)
  */
 public final class BoundaryFill {
     private BoundaryFill() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java
index d01066f611bd..b2a78b94ceb2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CatalanNumber.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 /**
  * This file contains an implementation of finding the nth CATALAN NUMBER using
  * dynamic programming : Wikipedia
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n^2) Space Complexity: O(n)
  *
  * @author AMRITESH ANAND
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java
index 7edc9603dc8b..6c8c7378ad1e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/CoinChange.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (...)
  */
 public final class CoinChange {
     private CoinChange() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java
index 9721d4ab0ad5..ba7520fb1078 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DamerauLevenshteinDistance.java
@@ -5,14 +5,14 @@
 
 /**
  * Implementation of the full Damerau–Levenshtein distance algorithm.
- *
+ * 

  * This algorithm calculates the minimum number of operations required
  * to transform one string into another. Supported operations are:
  * insertion, deletion, substitution, and transposition of adjacent characters.
- *
+ * 

  * Unlike the restricted version (OSA), this implementation allows multiple
  * edits on the same substring, computing the true edit distance.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n * m * max(n, m))
  * Space Complexity: O(n * m)
  */
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ private static void validateInputs(String s1, String s2) {
     /**
      * Builds a character map containing all unique characters from both strings.
      * Each character is initialized with a position value of 0.
-     *
+     * 

      * This map is used to track the last occurrence position of each character
      * during the distance computation, which is essential for handling transpositions.
      *
@@ -81,11 +81,11 @@ private static Map buildCharacterMap(String s1, String s2) {
 
     /**
      * Initializes the dynamic programming table for the algorithm.
-     *
+     * 

      * The table has dimensions (n+2) x (m+2) where n and m are the lengths
      * of the input strings. The extra rows and columns are used to handle
      * the transposition operation correctly.
-     *
+     * 

      * The first row and column are initialized with the maximum possible distance,
      * while the second row and column represent the base case of transforming
      * from an empty string.
@@ -116,11 +116,11 @@ private static int[][] initializeTable(int n, int m) {
     /**
      * Fills the dynamic programming table by computing the minimum edit distance
      * for each substring pair.
-     *
+     * 

      * This method implements the core algorithm logic, iterating through both strings
      * and computing the minimum cost of transforming substrings. It considers all
      * four operations: insertion, deletion, substitution, and transposition.
-     *
+     * 

      * The character position map is updated as we progress through the first string
      * to enable efficient transposition cost calculation.
      *
@@ -156,13 +156,13 @@ private static void fillTable(String s1, String s2, int[][] dp, Map
      * This method evaluates four possible operations:
      * 1. Substitution: replace character at position i with character at position j
      * 2. Insertion: insert character from s2 at position j
      * 3. Deletion: delete character from s1 at position i
      * 4. Transposition: swap characters that have been seen before
-     *
+     * 

      * The transposition cost accounts for the gap between the current position
      * and the last position where matching characters were found.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DigitDP.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DigitDP.java
index 7dae7603fedc..f549bf4f2ee6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DigitDP.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/DigitDP.java
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ private static long countWithDigitSum(long number, int target) {
 
     /**
      * Recursive memoized function to explore digit placements.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(number_of_digits * target_sum * 10)
      * Space Complexity: O(number_of_digits * target_sum * 2)
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java
index 0d6aff2bbef3..045d62b42b19 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Fibonacci.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 import java.util.Map;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (...)
  */
 public final class Fibonacci {
     private Fibonacci() {
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ public static int fibBotUp(int n) {
      * 

      * Whereas , the above functions will take O(n) Space.
      * @throws IllegalArgumentException if n is negative
-     * @author Shoaib Rayeen (https://github.com/shoaibrayeen)
+     * @author Shoaib Rayeen (...)
      */
     public static int fibOptimized(int n) {
         if (n < 0) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java
index 7a0a3da94c1e..8cef4bfa36ae 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithm.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * This class implements Kadane's Algorithm to find the maximum subarray sum
  * within a given array of integers. The algorithm efficiently computes the maximum
  * sum of a contiguous subarray in linear time.
- *
+ * 

  * Author: Siddhant Swarup Mallick
  */
 public final class KadaneAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java
index 0d4c8d501f9f..5ca5714f809f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Knapsack.java
@@ -4,14 +4,11 @@
 
 /**
  * 0/1 Knapsack Problem - Dynamic Programming solution.
- *
  * This algorithm solves the classic optimization problem where we have n items,
  * each with a weight and a value. The goal is to maximize the total value
  * without exceeding the knapsack's weight capacity.
- *
  * Time Complexity: O(n * W)
  * Space Complexity: O(W)
- *
  * Example:
  * values = {60, 100, 120}
  * weights = {10, 20, 30}
@@ -64,7 +61,7 @@ public static int knapSack(final int weightCapacity, final int[] weights, final
         return dp[weightCapacity];
     }
 
-    /*
+
     // Example main method for local testing only.
     public static void main(String[] args) {
         int[] values = {60, 100, 120};
@@ -74,5 +71,5 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         int maxValue = knapSack(weightCapacity, weights, values);
         System.out.println("Maximum value = " + maxValue); // Output: 220
     }
-    */
+
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java
index abc1e321ca8f..cee0edb9bac5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOne.java
@@ -4,11 +4,11 @@
  * The {@code KnapsackZeroOne} provides Recursive solution for the 0/1 Knapsack
  * problem. Solves by exploring all combinations of items using recursion. No
  * memoization or dynamic programming optimizations are applied.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(2^n) — explores all subsets.
  * Space Complexity: O(n) — due to recursive call stack.
- *
- * Problem Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem
+ * 

+ * Problem Refhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem
  */
 public final class KnapsackZeroOne {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java
index c560efc61c71..62b5ad53618f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackZeroOneTabulation.java
@@ -5,18 +5,18 @@
  * This method uses dynamic programming to build up a solution iteratively,
  * filling a 2-D array where each entry dp[i][w] represents the maximum value
  * achievable with the first i items and a knapsack capacity of w.
- *
+ * 

  * The tabulation approach is efficient because it avoids redundant calculations
  * by solving all subproblems in advance and storing their results, ensuring
  * each subproblem is solved only once. This is a key technique in dynamic programming,
  * making it possible to solve problems that would otherwise be infeasible due to
  * exponential time complexity in naive recursive solutions.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n * W), where n is the number of items and W is the knapsack capacity.
  * Space Complexity: O(n * W) for the DP table.
- *
- * For more information, see:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem#Dynamic_programming
+ * 

+ * For more informatisee:
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem#Dynamic_programming
  */
 public final class KnapsackZeroOneTabulation {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java
index 119d65dfe365..41c82d37c827 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LevenshteinDistance.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Provides functions to calculate the Levenshtein distance between two strings.
- *
+ * 

  * The Levenshtein distance is a measure of the similarity between two strings by calculating the minimum number of single-character
  * edits (insertions, deletions, or substitutions) required to change one string into the other.
  */
@@ -14,19 +14,19 @@ private LevenshteinDistance() {
 
     /**
      * Calculates the Levenshtein distance between two strings using a naive dynamic programming approach.
-     *
+     * 

      * This function computes the Levenshtein distance by constructing a dynamic programming matrix and iteratively filling it in.
      * It follows the standard top-to-bottom, left-to-right approach for filling in the matrix.
      *
      * @param string1 The first string.
      * @param string2 The second string.
      * @return The Levenshtein distance between the two input strings.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time complexity: O(nm),
      * Space complexity: O(nm),
-     *
+     * 

      * where n and m are lengths of `string1` and `string2`.
-     *
+     * 

      * Note that this implementation uses a straightforward dynamic programming approach without any space optimization.
      * It may consume more memory for larger input strings compared to the optimized version.
      */
@@ -43,18 +43,18 @@ public static int naiveLevenshteinDistance(final String string1, final String st
 
     /**
      * Calculates the Levenshtein distance between two strings using an optimized dynamic programming approach.
-     *
+     * 

      * This edit distance is defined as 1 point per insertion, substitution, or deletion required to make the strings equal.
      *
      * @param string1 The first string.
      * @param string2 The second string.
      * @return The Levenshtein distance between the two input strings.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time complexity: O(nm),
      * Space complexity: O(n),
-     *
+     * 

      * where n and m are lengths of `string1` and `string2`.
-     *
+     * 

      * Note that this implementation utilizes an optimized dynamic programming approach, significantly reducing the space complexity from O(nm) to O(n), where n and m are the lengths of `string1` and `string2`.
      *
      * Additionally, it minimizes space usage by leveraging the shortest string horizontally and the longest string vertically in the computation matrix.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java
index ba1def551192..d55af13c89e5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestArithmeticSubsequence.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ private LongestArithmeticSubsequence() {
 
     /**
      * Returns the length of the longest arithmetic subsequence in the given array.
-     *
+     * 

      * A sequence seq is arithmetic if seq[i + 1] - seq[i] are all the same value
      * (for 0 <= i < seq.length - 1).
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java
index 54837b5f4e71..d123c65321e7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestCommonSubsequence.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
  * The LCS of two sequences is the longest sequence that appears in both
  * sequences
  * in the same order, but not necessarily consecutively.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation uses dynamic programming to find the LCS of two strings.
  */
 final class LongestCommonSubsequence {
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ public static String getLCS(String str1, String str2) {
             return null;
         }
         // If either string is empty, return an empty string as LCS.
-        if (str1.length() == 0 || str2.length() == 0) {
+        if (str1.isEmpty() || str2.isEmpty()) {
             return "";
         }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java
index 470833ce9c97..b08b858da67f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequence.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.dynamicprogramming;
 
 /**
- * @author Afrizal Fikri (https://github.com/icalF)
+ * @author Afrizal Fikri (...)
  */
 public final class LongestIncreasingSubsequence {
     private LongestIncreasingSubsequence() {
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ else if (array[i] > tail[length - 1]) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * @author Alon Firestein (https://github.com/alonfirestein)
+     * @author Alon Firestein (...)
      */
     // A function for finding the length of the LIS algorithm in O(nlogn) complexity.
     public static int findLISLen(int[] a) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java
index 7bc0855e0566..47e70b6adb6b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * Implementation of the Longest Increasing Subsequence (LIS) problem using
  * an O(n log n) dynamic programming solution enhanced with binary search.
  *
- * @author Vusal Huseynov (https://github.com/huseynovvusal)
+ * @author Vusal Huseynov (...)
  */
 public final class LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN {
     private LongestIncreasingSubsequenceNLogN() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java
index 02696bfca9c2..e717cc674a86 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/LongestValidParentheses.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * Given a string containing just the characters '(' and ')', find the length of
  * the longest valid (well-formed) parentheses substring.
  *
- * @author Libin Yang (https://github.com/yanglbme)
+ * @author Libin Yang (...)
  * @since 2018/10/5
  */
 public final class LongestValidParentheses {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java
index 49af3ae3db88..1118b494c533 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * Class to find the maximum sum of non-adjacent elements in an array. This
  * class contains two approaches: one with O(n) space complexity and another
  * with O(1) space optimization. For more information, refer to
- * https://takeuforward.org/data-structure/maximum-sum-of-non-adjacent-elements-dp-5/
+ * ...
  */
 final class MaximumSumOfNonAdjacentElements {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java
index 13b640cf0d04..7247ebe7cca7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/NeedlemanWunsch.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * The Needleman–Wunsch algorithm performs global sequence alignment between two strings.
  * It computes the optimal alignment score using dynamic programming,
  * given a scoring scheme for matches, mismatches, and gaps.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n * m)
  * Space Complexity: O(n * m)
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalBinarySearchTree.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalBinarySearchTree.java
index 428176ea6c40..6064e1e2c49c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalBinarySearchTree.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalBinarySearchTree.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
  * and 10 as its left child. The total cost is 50 * 1 + 34 * 2 = 118.
  *
  * 
Reference:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_binary_search_tree
+ * ...
  */
 public final class OptimalBinarySearchTree {
     private OptimalBinarySearchTree() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java
index e31bb73096e8..bc347350f55e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/OptimalJobScheduling.java
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
  * This class refers to the Optimal Job Scheduling problem with the following constrains:
  *  - precedence relation between the processes
  *  - machine pair dependent transportation delays
- *
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_job_scheduling
+ * 
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_job_scheduling
  *
  * @author georgioct@csd.auth.gr
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java
index 8c72fa347f50..ef3ab5d508c2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/PartitionProblem.java
@@ -2,11 +2,11 @@
 import java.util.Arrays;
 /**
  * @author Md Asif Joardar
- *
+ * 

  * Description: The partition problem is a classic problem in computer science
  * that asks whether a given set can be partitioned into two subsets such that
  * the sum of elements in each subset is the same.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Consider nums = {1, 2, 3}
  * We can split the array "nums" into two partitions, where each having a sum of 3.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java
index 181ac72a654d..97262eb73792 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/RegexMatching.java
@@ -5,11 +5,11 @@
  * algorithm that finds if wildcard is matched with text. The matching should
  * cover the entire text ?-> matches single characters *-> match the sequence of
  * characters
- *
+ * 

  * For calculation of Time and Space Complexity. Let N be length of src and M be length of pat
- *
- * Memoization vs Tabulation : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tabulation-vs-memoization/
- * Question Link : https://practice.geeksforgeeks.org/problems/wildcard-pattern-matching/1
+ * 

+ * Memoization vs Tabul: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tabulation-vs-memoization/
+ * Question...tching/1
  */
 public final class RegexMatching {
     private RegexMatching() {
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ private RegexMatching() {
      * Method 1: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using a recursive approach.
      * This method directly applies recursion to check if the source string matches the pattern, considering
      * the wildcards '?' and '*'.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(2^(N+M)), where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
      * Space Complexity: O(N + M) due to the recursion stack.
      *
@@ -28,13 +28,13 @@ private RegexMatching() {
      * @return {@code true} if the source string matches the pattern, {@code false} otherwise.
      */
     public static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat) {
-        if (src.length() == 0 && pat.length() == 0) {
+        if (src.isEmpty() && pat.isEmpty()) {
             return true;
         }
-        if (src.length() != 0 && pat.length() == 0) {
+        if (!src.isEmpty() && pat.isEmpty()) {
             return false;
         }
-        if (src.length() == 0 && pat.length() != 0) {
+        if (src.isEmpty() && !pat.isEmpty()) {
             for (int i = 0; i < pat.length(); i++) {
                 if (pat.charAt(i) != '*') {
                     return false;
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ public static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat) {
     /**
      * Method 2: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using recursion.
      * This method utilizes a virtual index for both the source string and the pattern to manage the recursion.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(2^(N+M)) where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
      * Space Complexity: O(N + M) due to the recursion stack.
      *
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvidx) {
     /**
      * Method 3: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using top-down dynamic programming (memoization).
      * This method utilizes memoization to store intermediate results, reducing redundant computations and improving efficiency.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(N * M), where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
      * Space Complexity: O(N * M) for the memoization table, plus additional space for the recursion stack.
      *
@@ -158,7 +158,7 @@ public static boolean regexRecursion(String src, String pat, int svidx, int pvid
      * Method 4: Determines if the given source string matches the given pattern using bottom-up dynamic programming (tabulation).
      * This method builds a solution iteratively by filling out a table, where each cell represents whether a substring
      * of the source string matches a substring of the pattern.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(N * M), where N is the length of the source string and M is the length of the pattern.
      * Space Complexity: O(N * M) for the table used in the tabulation process.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java
index c0d66f68b502..69ca7e42dddd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SmithWaterman.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Smith–Waterman algorithm for local sequence alignment.
  * Finds the highest scoring local alignment between substrings of two sequences.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n * m)
  * Space Complexity: O(n * m)
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java
index e9c15c1b4f24..478d711c3036 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/SumOfSubset.java
@@ -3,11 +3,11 @@
 /**
  * A utility class that contains the Sum of Subset problem solution using
  * recursion.
- *
+ * 

  * The Sum of Subset problem determines whether a subset of elements from a
  * given array sums up to a specific target value.
- *
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset_sum_problem
+ * 

+ * Wikhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset_sum_problem
  */
 public final class SumOfSubset {
 
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ private SumOfSubset() {
      * @param num The index of the current element being considered.
      * @param key The target sum we are trying to achieve.
      * @return true if a subset of `arr` adds up to `key`, false otherwise.
-     *
+     * 

      *         This is a recursive solution that checks for two possibilities at
      *         each step:
      *         1. Include the current element in the subset and check if the
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java
index 9fd82ccaf078..4448b6ed8a72 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/TreeMatching.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 /**
  * This class implements the algorithm for calculating the maximum weighted matching in a tree.
  * The tree is represented as an undirected graph with weighted edges.
- *
+ * 

  * Problem Description:
  *  Given an undirected tree G = (V, E) with edge weights γ: E → N and a root r ∈ V,
  *  the goal is to find a maximum weight matching M ⊆ E such that no two edges in M
@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@
  */
 public class TreeMatching {
 
-    private UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph graph;
-    private int[][] dp;
+    private final UndirectedAdjacencyListGraph graph;
+    private final int[][] dp;
 
     /**
      * Constructor that initializes the graph and the DP table.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java
index 3ff6cc620236..71b3e69bb2ba 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/Tribonacci.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * The {@code Tribonacci} class provides a method to compute the n-th number in the Tribonacci sequence.
- * N-th Tribonacci Number - https://leetcode.com/problems/n-th-tribonacci-number/description/
+ * N-th Tribonacci Number - ...
  */
 public final class Tribonacci {
     private Tribonacci() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java
index 22ad8a7dd8e3..197e2a5d5a13 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniquePaths.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Author: Siddhant Swarup Mallick
- * Github: https://github.com/siddhant2002
+ * Github: ...
  * 

  * Problem Description:
  * A robot is located at the top-left corner of a m x n grid (marked 'Start' in the diagram below).
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java
index 8c7ea6179e3f..a13725532812 100755
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/UniqueSubsequencesCount.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
  * using dynamic programming and recursion. It ensures that duplicate characters
  * are not counted multiple times in the subsequences.

  *
- * 
 Author: https://github.com/Tuhinm2002 

+ * 
 Author: ... 

  */
 public final class UniqueSubsequencesCount {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java
index 8658ea30af00..45b53d135917 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WildcardMatching.java
@@ -3,13 +3,12 @@
 /**
  *
  * Author: Janmesh Singh
- * Github: https://github.com/janmeshjs
-
+ * Github: ...
  * Problem Statement: To determine if the pattern matches the text.
  * The pattern can include two special wildcard characters:
  *       ' ? ': Matches any single character.
  *       ' * ': Matches zero or more of any character sequence.
- *
+ * 

  * Use DP to return True if the pattern matches the entire text and False otherwise
  *
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java
index 022b43184a88..72ddc2a9f2b3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/WineProblem.java
@@ -5,19 +5,19 @@
  * Given a collection of N wines with different prices, the objective is to maximize profit by selling
  * one wine each year, considering the constraint that only the leftmost or rightmost wine can be sold
  * at any given time.
- *
+ * 

  * The price of the ith wine is pi, and the selling price increases by a factor of the year in which
  * it is sold. This class implements three approaches to solve the problem:
- *
+ * 

  * 1. **Recursion**: A straightforward recursive method that computes the maximum profit.
  *    - Time Complexity: O(2^N)
  *    - Space Complexity: O(N) due to recursive calls.
- *
+ * 

  * 2. **Top-Down Dynamic Programming (Memoization)**: This approach caches the results of subproblems
  *    to avoid redundant computations.
  *    - Time Complexity: O(N^2)
  *    - Space Complexity: O(N^2) for the storage of results and O(N) for recursion stack.
- *
+ * 

  * 3. **Bottom-Up Dynamic Programming (Tabulation)**: This method builds a table iteratively to
  *    compute the maximum profit for all possible subproblems.
  *    - Time Complexity: O(N^2)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java
index 51d9930c0250..540aae90c873 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/BresenhamLine.java
@@ -11,8 +11,8 @@
  *
  * 
This algorithm uses integer arithmetic to calculate the points,
  * making it suitable for rasterization in computer graphics.

- *
- * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresenham%27s_line_algorithm}
+ /**
+ * For more information, please visit Bresenham's Line Algorithm
  */
 public final class BresenhamLine {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java
index d44d20c68807..7ab87c4e4fe4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/ConvexHull.java
@@ -3,55 +3,186 @@
 import java.util.ArrayList;
 import java.util.Collection;
 import java.util.Collections;
-import java.util.Comparator;
 import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Set;
 import java.util.TreeSet;
+import java.util.Comparator;
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 1. Shared geometry utilities
+//    (SRP: one class owns all pure geometric calculations used by both algorithms)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 
 /**
- * A class providing algorithms to compute the convex hull of a set of points
- * using brute-force and recursive methods.
- *
- * Convex hull: The smallest convex polygon that contains all the given points.
- *
- * Algorithms provided:
- * 1. Brute-Force Method
- * 2. Recursive (Divide-and-Conquer) Method
+ * Pure geometric helper methods shared across convex-hull algorithms.
  *
- * @author Hardvan
+ * 
All methods are stateless and side-effect-free.
+ * No algorithm control-flow lives here — only geometry.

  */
-public final class ConvexHull {
-    private ConvexHull() {
-    }
+final class HullGeometry {
+
+    /** Sentinel used when no extreme-point distance has been recorded yet. */
+    static final int NO_DISTANCE = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
+
+    private HullGeometry() {}
 
-    private static boolean checkPointOrientation(Point i, Point j, Point k) {
-        int detK = Point.orientation(i, j, k);
-        if (detK > 0) {
-            return true; // pointsLeftOfIJ
-        } else if (detK < 0) {
-            return false; // pointsRightOfIJ
+    /**
+     * Determines whether point {@code k} lies on the same side of line {@code ij}
+     * as the reference direction established by the first non-collinear point.
+     *
+     * 
For collinear points the method returns {@code true} when {@code k} falls
+     * between {@code i} and {@code j} (inclusive), so that segment endpoints are
+     * treated as hull candidates.

+     *
+     * @return {@code true} if {@code k} is left-of or on the segment {@code ij};
+     *         {@code false} if it is right-of the line
+     */
+    static boolean isOnExpectedSide(Point i, Point j, Point k) {
+        int orientation = Point.orientation(i, j, k);
+        if (orientation > 0) {
+            return true;   // k is left of i→j
+        } else if (orientation < 0) {
+            return false;  // k is right of i→j
         } else {
-            return k.compareTo(i) >= 0 && k.compareTo(j) <= 0;
+            return k.compareTo(i) >= 0 && k.compareTo(j) <= 0;  // k is collinear, between i and j
         }
     }
 
-    public static List convexHullBruteForce(List points) {
+    /**
+     * Returns the squared Euclidean distance between {@code p1} and {@code p2}.
+     *
+     * 
Using squared distance avoids floating-point arithmetic while still
+     * providing a consistent total order on distances.

+     */
+    static long squaredDistance(Point p1, Point p2) {
+        long dx = (long) p1.x() - p2.x();
+        long dy = (long) p1.y() - p2.y();
+        return dx * dx + dy * dy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sorts {@code hullPoints} in counter-clockwise order starting from the
+     * bottom-most, left-most point (the angular pivot).
+     *
+     * 
Intermediate collinear points are removed so that only the farthest
+     * point along each ray from the pivot is retained.

+     *
+     * @param hullPoints mutable list of hull points to sort in-place and return
+     * @return the same list, now ordered counter-clockwise
+     */
+    static List sortCounterClockwise(List hullPoints) {
+        if (hullPoints.size() <= 2) {
+            Collections.sort(hullPoints);
+            return hullPoints;
+        }
+
+        Point pivot = findBottomLeftPoint(hullPoints);
+        List remaining = sortByPolarAngle(hullPoints, pivot);
+        return buildOrderedHull(pivot, remaining);
+    }
+
+    // ── private helpers ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+    /** Finds the bottom-most, left-most point in {@code points}. */
+    private static Point findBottomLeftPoint(List points) {
+        Point pivot = points.getFirst();
+        for (Point p : points) {
+            if (p.y() < pivot.y() || (p.y() == pivot.y() && p.x() < pivot.x())) {
+                pivot = p;
+            }
+        }
+        return pivot;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Returns all points except {@code pivot}, sorted by polar angle relative
+     * to {@code pivot}. Collinear points are ordered closer-first so that the
+     * final hull-building step can simply keep the last one.
+     */
+    private static List sortByPolarAngle(List hullPoints, Point pivot) {
+        List remaining = new ArrayList<>(hullPoints);
+        remaining.remove(pivot);
+        remaining.sort((p1, p2) -> {
+            int crossProduct = Point.orientation(pivot, p1, p2);
+            if (crossProduct == 0) {
+                // Collinear: put the closer point first so we discard it later
+                return Long.compare(squaredDistance(pivot, p1), squaredDistance(pivot, p2));
+            }
+            // Negative cross product means p1 is CCW from p2 → p1 should come first
+            return -crossProduct;
+        });
+        return remaining;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Builds the final ordered list by placing {@code pivot} first and
+     * discarding intermediate collinear points (keeping only the farthest one
+     * along each ray).
+     */
+    private static List buildOrderedHull(Point pivot, List sorted) {
+        List result = new ArrayList<>();
+        result.add(pivot);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < sorted.size() - 1; i++) {
+            int orientation = Point.orientation(pivot, sorted.get(i), sorted.get(i + 1));
+            if (orientation != 0) {
+                // Current point is the farthest at its angle — keep it
+                result.add(sorted.get(i));
+            }
+            // orientation == 0 means the next point is farther along the same ray — skip this one
+        }
+        // The last sorted point is always kept: it is either unique at its angle
+        // or the farthest among a collinear group
+        result.add(sorted.getLast());
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 2. Strategy interface
+//    (OCP + DIP: new algorithms can be added without touching existing code;
+//     callers depend on this abstraction, not on concrete classes)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Strategy contract for convex-hull algorithms.
+ *
+ * 
Any class implementing this interface accepts a list of {@link Point}s
+ * and returns the hull vertices in counter-clockwise order.

+ */
+interface ConvexHullAlgorithm {
+    /**
+     * Computes the convex hull of {@code points}.
+     *
+     * @param points the input point set (not modified)
+     * @return the hull vertices in counter-clockwise order
+     */
+    List compute(List points);
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 3. Brute-force algorithm
+//    (SRP: this class is solely responsible for the O(n³) brute-force method)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Convex-hull computation using the O(n³) brute-force edge-enumeration method.
+ *
+ * 
For every pair of points {@code (i, j)}, the algorithm checks whether all
+ * remaining points lie on the same side of the directed line {@code i→j}.
+ * If they do, both endpoints are hull vertices.

+ */
+final class BruteForceHull implements ConvexHullAlgorithm {
+
+    @Override
+    public List compute(List points) {
         Set convexSet = new TreeSet<>(Comparator.naturalOrder());
 
         for (int i = 0; i < points.size() - 1; i++) {
             for (int j = i + 1; j < points.size(); j++) {
-                boolean allPointsOnOneSide = true;
-                boolean leftSide = checkPointOrientation(points.get(i), points.get(j), points.get((i + 1) % points.size()));
-
-                for (int k = 0; k < points.size(); k++) {
-                    if (k != i && k != j && checkPointOrientation(points.get(i), points.get(j), points.get(k)) != leftSide) {
-                        allPointsOnOneSide = false;
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                if (allPointsOnOneSide) {
+                if (isHullEdge(points, i, j)) {
                     convexSet.add(points.get(i));
                     convexSet.add(points.get(j));
                 }
@@ -62,146 +193,187 @@ public static List convexHullBruteForce(List points) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Computes the convex hull using a recursive divide-and-conquer approach.
-     * Returns points in counter-clockwise order starting from the bottom-most, left-most point.
-     *
-     * @param points the input points
-     * @return the convex hull points in counter-clockwise order
+     * Returns {@code true} when the directed edge from {@code points[i]} to
+     * {@code points[j]} has all other points on the same side.
      */
-    public static List convexHullRecursive(List points) {
+    private boolean isHullEdge(List points, int i, int j) {
+        // Use the point just after i as the reference side
+        boolean referenceSide = HullGeometry.isOnExpectedSide(
+                points.get(i), points.get(j), points.get((i + 1) % points.size())
+        );
+
+        for (int k = 0; k < points.size(); k++) {
+            if (k == i || k == j) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            if (HullGeometry.isOnExpectedSide(points.get(i), points.get(j), points.get(k)) != referenceSide) {
+                return false;
+            }
+        }
+        return true;
+    }
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 4. Recursive (divide-and-conquer) algorithm
+//    (SRP: this class is solely responsible for the recursive hull method)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Convex-hull computation using a recursive divide-and-conquer approach.
+ *
+ * 
The algorithm splits the point set into an upper and a lower hull relative
+ * to the line connecting the leftmost and rightmost points, then recursively
+ * finds the extreme point of each sub-hull.

+ *
+ * 
Returns points in counter-clockwise order starting from the bottom-most,
+ * left-most point.

+ */
+final class RecursiveHull implements ConvexHullAlgorithm {
+
+    @Override
+    public List compute(List points) {
         if (points.size() < 3) {
             List result = new ArrayList<>(points);
             Collections.sort(result);
             return result;
         }
 
-        Collections.sort(points);
-        Set convexSet = new HashSet<>();
-        Point leftMostPoint = points.getFirst();
-        Point rightMostPoint = points.getLast();
+        List sorted = new ArrayList<>(points);
+        Collections.sort(sorted);
 
-        convexSet.add(leftMostPoint);
-        convexSet.add(rightMostPoint);
+        Point leftMost = sorted.getFirst();
+        Point rightMost = sorted.getLast();
+
+        Set convexSet = new HashSet<>();
+        convexSet.add(leftMost);
+        convexSet.add(rightMost);
 
         List upperHull = new ArrayList<>();
         List lowerHull = new ArrayList<>();
 
-        for (int i = 1; i < points.size() - 1; i++) {
-            int det = Point.orientation(leftMostPoint, rightMostPoint, points.get(i));
-            if (det > 0) {
-                upperHull.add(points.get(i));
-            } else if (det < 0) {
-                lowerHull.add(points.get(i));
-            }
-        }
+        partitionPoints(sorted, leftMost, rightMost, upperHull, lowerHull);
 
-        constructHull(upperHull, leftMostPoint, rightMostPoint, convexSet);
-        constructHull(lowerHull, rightMostPoint, leftMostPoint, convexSet);
+        constructHull(upperHull, leftMost, rightMost, convexSet);
+        constructHull(lowerHull, rightMost, leftMost, convexSet);
 
-        // Convert to list and sort in counter-clockwise order
-        return sortCounterClockwise(new ArrayList<>(convexSet));
+        return HullGeometry.sortCounterClockwise(new ArrayList<>(convexSet));
     }
 
-    private static void constructHull(Collection points, Point left, Point right, Set convexSet) {
-        if (!points.isEmpty()) {
-            Point extremePoint = null;
-            int extremePointDistance = Integer.MIN_VALUE;
-            List candidatePoints = new ArrayList<>();
-
-            for (Point p : points) {
-                int det = Point.orientation(left, right, p);
-                if (det > 0) {
-                    candidatePoints.add(p);
-                    if (det > extremePointDistance) {
-                        extremePointDistance = det;
-                        extremePoint = p;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            if (extremePoint != null) {
-                constructHull(candidatePoints, left, extremePoint, convexSet);
-                convexSet.add(extremePoint);
-                constructHull(candidatePoints, extremePoint, right, convexSet);
+    /**
+     * Splits interior points into upper and lower hulls relative to the
+     * baseline {@code leftMost → rightMost}.
+     */
+    private void partitionPoints(List sorted, Point leftMost, Point rightMost,
+                                 List upperHull, List lowerHull) {
+        for (int i = 1; i < sorted.size() - 1; i++) {
+            int orientation = Point.orientation(leftMost, rightMost, sorted.get(i));
+            if (orientation > 0) {
+                upperHull.add(sorted.get(i));
+            } else if (orientation < 0) {
+                lowerHull.add(sorted.get(i));
             }
         }
     }
 
     /**
-     * Sorts convex hull points in counter-clockwise order starting from
-     * the bottom-most, left-most point.
-     *
-     * @param hullPoints the unsorted convex hull points
-     * @return the points sorted in counter-clockwise order
+     * Recursively identifies the extreme point on the left side of the directed
+     * line {@code left → right} and adds confirmed hull vertices to
+     * {@code convexSet}.
      */
-    private static List sortCounterClockwise(List hullPoints) {
-        if (hullPoints.size() <= 2) {
-            Collections.sort(hullPoints);
-            return hullPoints;
+    private void constructHull(Collection points, Point left, Point right, Set convexSet) {
+        if (points.isEmpty()) {
+            return;
         }
 
-        // Find the bottom-most, left-most point (pivot)
-        Point pivot = hullPoints.getFirst();
-        for (Point p : hullPoints) {
-            if (p.y() < pivot.y() || (p.y() == pivot.y() && p.x() < pivot.x())) {
-                pivot = p;
-            }
+        Point extremePoint = findExtremePoint(points, left, right);
+        if (extremePoint == null) {
+            return;
         }
 
-        // Sort other points by polar angle with respect to pivot
-        final Point finalPivot = pivot;
-        List sorted = new ArrayList<>(hullPoints);
-        sorted.remove(finalPivot);
+        List leftCandidates = collectLeftOf(points, left, right);
 
-        sorted.sort((p1, p2) -> {
-            int crossProduct = Point.orientation(finalPivot, p1, p2);
+        constructHull(leftCandidates, left, extremePoint, convexSet);
+        convexSet.add(extremePoint);
+        constructHull(leftCandidates, extremePoint, right, convexSet);
+    }
 
-            if (crossProduct == 0) {
-                // Collinear points: sort by distance from pivot (closer first for convex hull)
-                long dist1 = distanceSquared(finalPivot, p1);
-                long dist2 = distanceSquared(finalPivot, p2);
-                return Long.compare(dist1, dist2);
-            }
+    /**
+     * Returns the point in {@code points} that lies furthest to the left of the
+     * directed line {@code left → right}, or {@code null} if no such point exists.
+     */
+    private Point findExtremePoint(Collection points, Point left, Point right) {
+        Point extremePoint = null;
+        int maxDistance = HullGeometry.NO_DISTANCE;
 
-            // Positive cross product means p2 is counter-clockwise from p1
-            // We want counter-clockwise order, so if p2 is CCW from p1, p1 should come first
-            return -crossProduct;
-        });
+        for (Point p : points) {
+            int distance = Point.orientation(left, right, p);
+            if (distance > 0 && distance > maxDistance) {
+                maxDistance = distance;
+                extremePoint = p;
+            }
+        }
+        return extremePoint;
+    }
 
-        // Build result with pivot first, filtering out intermediate collinear points
+    /**
+     * Returns all points in {@code points} that lie strictly to the left of the
+     * directed line {@code left → right}.
+     */
+    private List collectLeftOf(Collection points, Point left, Point right) {
         List result = new ArrayList<>();
-        result.add(finalPivot);
-
-        if (!sorted.isEmpty()) {
-            // This loop iterates through the points sorted by angle.
-            // For points that are collinear with the pivot, we only want the one that is farthest away.
-            // The sort places closer points first.
-            for (int i = 0; i < sorted.size() - 1; i++) {
-                // Check the orientation of the pivot, the current point, and the next point.
-                int orientation = Point.orientation(finalPivot, sorted.get(i), sorted.get(i + 1));
-
-                // If the orientation is not 0, it means the next point (i+1) is at a new angle.
-                // Therefore, the current point (i) must be the farthest point at its angle. We keep it.
-                if (orientation != 0) {
-                    result.add(sorted.get(i));
-                }
-                // If the orientation is 0, the points are collinear. We discard the current point (i)
-                // because it is closer to the pivot than the next point (i+1).
+        for (Point p : points) {
+            if (Point.orientation(left, right, p) > 0) {
+                result.add(p);
             }
-            // Always add the very last point from the sorted list. It is either the only point
-            // at its angle, or it's the farthest among a set of collinear points.
-            result.add(sorted.getLast());
         }
-
         return result;
     }
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 5. Public façade  (preserves the original public API surface exactly)
+//    (DIP: static helpers now delegate to the strategy implementations)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Public entry point for convex-hull computation.
+ *
+ * 
Provides two named factory methods that preserve the original API while
+ * delegating to independent, interchangeable {@link ConvexHullAlgorithm}
+ * implementations.

+ *
+ * 
Algorithms provided:

+ * 
    
+ *   
  1. Brute-Force Method — O(n³), via {@link BruteForceHull}
    2. 
+ *   
  2. Recursive Divide-and-Conquer Method — O(n log n), via {@link RecursiveHull}
    3. 
+ * 

+ *
+ * @author Hardvan
+ */
+public final class ConvexHull {
+
+    private ConvexHull() {}
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the convex hull using the O(n³) brute-force method.
+     *
+     * @param points the input points
+     * @return the convex hull vertices
+     */
+    public static List convexHullBruteForce(List points) {
+        return new BruteForceHull().compute(points);
+    }
 
     /**
-     * Computes the squared distance between two points to avoid floating point operations.
+     * Computes the convex hull using a recursive divide-and-conquer approach.
+     * Returns points in counter-clockwise order starting from the bottom-most,
+     * left-most point.
+     *
+     * @param points the input points
+     * @return the convex hull points in counter-clockwise order
      */
-    private static long distanceSquared(Point p1, Point p2) {
-        long dx = (long) p1.x() - p2.x();
-        long dy = (long) p1.y() - p2.y();
-        return dx * dx + dy * dy;
+    public static List convexHullRecursive(List points) {
+        return new RecursiveHull().compute(points);
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java
index cb24951f398a..7dd288f4c5ea 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/DDALine.java
@@ -8,11 +8,11 @@
  * The {@code DDALine} class implements the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA)
  * line drawing algorithm. It computes points along a line between two given
  * endpoints using floating-point arithmetic.
- *
+ * 

  * The algorithm is straightforward but less efficient compared to
  * Bresenham’s line algorithm, since it relies on floating-point operations.
- *
- * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_differential_analyzer_(graphics_algorithm)}
+ /**
+ * For more information, please visit Digital Differential Analyzer Algorithm
  */
 public final class DDALine {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java
index 1a373cf315a2..b2b74d43e103 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/GrahamScan.java
@@ -9,11 +9,11 @@
  * The time complexity is O(n) in the best case and O(n log(n)) in the worst case.
  * The space complexity is O(n).
  * This algorithm is applicable only to integral coordinates.
- *
- * References:
- * https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/C-Plus-Plus/blob/master/geometry/graham_scan_algorithm.cpp
- * https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/C-Plus-Plus/blob/master/geometry/graham_scan_functions.hpp
- * https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/99hull/GrahamScan.java.html
+ * 

+ * References:* https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/C-Plus-Plus/blob/master/geometry/graham_scan_algorithm.cpp* https://github.com/TheAlgorithms/C-Plus-Plus/blob/master/geometry/graham_scan_functions.hpp* https://algs4.cs.princeton.edu/99hull/GrahamScan.java.html
  */
 public class GrahamScan {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java
index fa1799e9f076..8279521817a6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/Haversine.java
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.geometry;
 /**
  * This Class implements the Haversine formula to calculate the distance between two points on a sphere (like Earth) from their latitudes and longitudes.
- *
+ * 

  * The Haversine formula is used in navigation and mapping to find the great-circle distance,
  * which is the shortest distance between two points along the surface of a sphere. It is often
  * used to calculate the "as the crow flies" distance between two geographical locations.
- *
+ * 

  * The formula is reliable for all distances, including small ones, and avoids issues with
  * numerical instability that can affect other methods.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/LineIntersection.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/LineIntersection.java
index 8d65833816b3..4f82cf0fac0b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/LineIntersection.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/LineIntersection.java
@@ -38,11 +38,7 @@ public static boolean intersects(Point p1, Point p2, Point q1, Point q2) {
         if (o3 == 0 && onSegment(q1, p1, q2)) {
             return true;
         }
-        if (o4 == 0 && onSegment(q1, p2, q2)) {
-            return true;
-        }
-
-        return false;
+        return o4 == 0 && onSegment(q1, p2, q2);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java
index 3539daaf6e5a..f4794e5ce9a4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/geometry/WusLine.java
@@ -8,16 +8,16 @@
  * The {@code WusLine} class implements Xiaolin Wu's line drawing algorithm,
  * which produces anti-aliased lines by varying pixel brightness
  * according to the line's proximity to pixel centers.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation returns the pixel coordinates along with
  * their associated intensity values (in range [0.0, 1.0]), allowing
  * rendering systems to blend accordingly.
- *
+ * 

  * The algorithm works by:
  * - Computing a line's intersection with pixel boundaries
  * - Assigning intensity values based on distance from pixel centers
  * - Drawing pairs of pixels perpendicular to the line's direction
- *
+ * 

  * Reference: Xiaolin Wu, "An Efficient Antialiasing Technique",
  * Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH '91 Proceedings).
  *
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ private WusLine() {
 
     /**
      * Represents a pixel and its intensity for anti-aliased rendering.
-     *
+     * 

      * The intensity value determines how bright the pixel should be drawn,
      * with 1.0 being fully opaque and 0.0 being fully transparent.
      */
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ private static class EndpointData {
 
     /**
      * Draws an anti-aliased line using Wu's algorithm.
-     *
+     * 

      * The algorithm produces smooth lines by drawing pairs of pixels at each
      * x-coordinate (or y-coordinate for steep lines), with intensities based on
      * the line's distance from pixel centers.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java
index 0510d9bcf494..6f2d81535502 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/BronKerbosch.java
@@ -1,99 +1,137 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.graph;
 
 import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Collections;
 import java.util.HashSet;
 import java.util.List;
 import java.util.Set;
 
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 1. Graph abstraction  (DIP: high-level code depends on this, not on HashSet)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
 /**
- * Implementation of the Bron–Kerbosch algorithm with pivoting for enumerating all maximal cliques
- * in an undirected graph.
- *
- * 
The input graph is represented as an adjacency list where {@code adjacency.get(u)} returns the
- * set of vertices adjacent to {@code u}. The algorithm runs in time proportional to the number of
- * maximal cliques produced and is widely used for clique enumeration problems.

- *
- * @author Wikipedia: Bron–Kerbosch algorithm
+ * Read-only view of an undirected graph used by the clique enumeration algorithm.
  */
-public final class BronKerbosch {
+interface Graph {
+    /** Returns the number of vertices. */
+    int size();
+
+    /**
+     * Returns an unmodifiable set of neighbors for vertex {@code u}.
+     *
+     * @throws IndexOutOfBoundsException if {@code u} is out of range
+     */
+    Set neighbours(int u);
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 2. Concrete Graph implementation
+//    (SRP: only responsible for storing and exposing adjacency)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Immutable adjacency-list graph built from a raw {@code List>}.
+ */
+final class AdjacencyListGraph implements Graph {
+
+    private final List> adjacency;
+
+    /**
+     * Constructs a validated, defensive copy of the supplied adjacency list.
+     *
+     * @param raw the adjacency list to copy; already validated by {@link GraphValidator}
+     */
+    AdjacencyListGraph(List> raw) {
+        int n = raw.size();
+        List> copy = new ArrayList<>(n);
+        for (int u = 0; u < n; u++) {
+            Set neighbours = new HashSet<>(raw.get(u));
+            neighbours.remove(u);                 // strip self-loops
+            copy.add(Collections.unmodifiableSet(neighbours));
+        }
+        this.adjacency = Collections.unmodifiableList(copy);
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public int size() {
+        return adjacency.size();
+    }
 
-    private BronKerbosch() {
+    @Override
+    public Set neighbours(int u) {
+        return adjacency.get(u);
     }
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 3. Input validation
+//    (SRP: one class, one job — catch bad input before it enters the algorithm)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Validates a raw adjacency list before it is used to construct a {@link Graph}.
+ */
+final class GraphValidator {
+
+    private GraphValidator() {}
 
     /**
-     * Finds all maximal cliques of the provided graph.
+     * Throws {@link IllegalArgumentException} if the adjacency list is malformed.
      *
-     * @param adjacency adjacency list where {@code adjacency.size()} equals the number of vertices
-     * @return a list containing every maximal clique, each represented as a {@link Set} of vertices
-     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the adjacency list is {@code null}, contains {@code null}
-     *         entries, or references invalid vertices
+     * @param adjacency the list to validate
      */
-    public static List> findMaximalCliques(List> adjacency) {
+    static void validate(List> adjacency) {
         if (adjacency == null) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("Adjacency list must not be null");
         }
-
         int n = adjacency.size();
-        List> graph = new ArrayList<>(n);
-        for (int u = 0; u < n; u++) {
-            Set neighbors = adjacency.get(u);
-            if (neighbors == null) {
+        for (Set neighbours : adjacency) {
+            if (neighbours == null) {
                 throw new IllegalArgumentException("Adjacency list must not contain null sets");
             }
-            Set copy = new HashSet<>();
-            for (int v : neighbors) {
+            for (int v : neighbours) {
                 if (v < 0 || v >= n) {
-                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Neighbor index out of bounds: " + v);
-                }
-                if (v != u) {
-                    copy.add(v);
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Neighbour index out of bounds: " + v);
                 }
             }
-            graph.add(copy);
-        }
-
-        Set r = new HashSet<>();
-        Set p = new HashSet<>();
-        Set x = new HashSet<>();
-        for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
-            p.add(v);
         }
-
-        List> cliques = new ArrayList<>();
-        bronKerboschPivot(r, p, x, graph, cliques);
-        return cliques;
     }
+}
 
-    private static void bronKerboschPivot(Set r, Set p, Set x, List> graph, List> cliques) {
-        if (p.isEmpty() && x.isEmpty()) {
-            cliques.add(new HashSet<>(r));
-            return;
-        }
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 4. Pivot selection strategy
+//    (OCP: swap out strategies without touching the solver;
+//     DIP: solver depends on the interface, not a concrete choice)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 
-        int pivot = choosePivot(p, x, graph);
-        Set candidates = new HashSet<>(p);
-        if (pivot != -1) {
-            candidates.removeAll(graph.get(pivot));
-        }
+/**
+ * Strategy for choosing a pivot vertex during Bron–Kerbosch enumeration.
+ */
+interface PivotStrategy {
+    /**
+     * Selects a pivot from {@code candidates ∪ excluded}.
+     *
+     * @param candidates the current P set
+     * @param excluded   the current X set
+     * @param graph      the graph being searched
+     * @return the chosen pivot, or {@code -1} if the union is empty
+     */
+    int choosePivot(Set candidates, Set excluded, Graph graph);
+}
 
-        for (Integer v : candidates) {
-            r.add(v);
-            Set newP = intersection(p, graph.get(v));
-            Set newX = intersection(x, graph.get(v));
-            bronKerboschPivot(r, newP, newX, graph, cliques);
-            r.remove(v);
-            p.remove(v);
-            x.add(v);
-        }
-    }
+/**
+ * Picks the vertex from {@code P ∪ X} with the highest degree in the full graph.
+ * This is the classic Tomita et al. (2006) heuristic.
+ */
+final class MaxDegreePivotStrategy implements PivotStrategy {
 
-    private static int choosePivot(Set p, Set x, List> graph) {
+    @Override
+    public int choosePivot(Set candidates, Set excluded, Graph graph) {
         int pivot = -1;
         int maxDegree = -1;
-        Set union = new HashSet<>(p);
-        union.addAll(x);
-        for (Integer v : union) {
-            int degree = graph.get(v).size();
+        for (int v : union(candidates, excluded)) {
+            int degree = graph.neighbours(v).size();
             if (degree > maxDegree) {
                 maxDegree = degree;
                 pivot = v;
@@ -102,13 +140,169 @@ private static int choosePivot(Set p, Set x, List
         return pivot;
     }
 
-    private static Set intersection(Set base, Set neighbors) {
+    private static Set union(Set a, Set b) {
+        Set result = new HashSet<>(a);
+        result.addAll(b);
+        return result;
+    }
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 5. Search-state value object
+//    (removes the "data clump" smell: R/P/X always travelled together)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Immutable snapshot of one recursive frame in the Bron–Kerbosch search:
+ * the current clique {@code R}, candidate vertices {@code P}, and
+ * already-processed vertices {@code X}.
+ *
+ * 
Mutation methods return new instances, keeping each frame independent.

+ */
+final class SearchState {
+
+    final Set clique;      // R
+    final Set candidates;  // P
+    final Set excluded;    // X
+
+    SearchState(Set clique, Set candidates, Set excluded) {
+        this.clique = Collections.unmodifiableSet(new HashSet<>(clique));
+        this.candidates = Collections.unmodifiableSet(new HashSet<>(candidates));
+        this.excluded = Collections.unmodifiableSet(new HashSet<>(excluded));
+    }
+
+    /** Returns the initial state for a graph with {@code n} vertices. */
+    static SearchState initial(int n) {
+        Set allVertices = new HashSet<>();
+        for (int v = 0; v < n; v++) {
+            allVertices.add(v);
+        }
+        return new SearchState(new HashSet<>(), allVertices, new HashSet<>());
+    }
+
+    /** Returns a new state with {@code vertex} added to the clique and both sets intersected with its neighbours. */
+    SearchState expandWith(int vertex, Graph graph) {
+        Set neighbours = graph.neighbours(vertex);
+        Set newClique = new HashSet<>(clique);
+        newClique.add(vertex);
+        return new SearchState(newClique, intersection(candidates, neighbours), intersection(excluded, neighbours));
+    }
+
+    /** Returns a new state with {@code vertex} moved from candidates to excluded. */
+    SearchState processVertex(int vertex) {
+        Set newCandidates = new HashSet<>(candidates);
+        newCandidates.remove(vertex);
+        Set newExcluded = new HashSet<>(excluded);
+        newExcluded.add(vertex);
+        return new SearchState(clique, newCandidates, newExcluded);
+    }
+
+    boolean isMaximalClique() {
+        return candidates.isEmpty() && excluded.isEmpty();
+    }
+
+    private static Set intersection(Set base, Set filter) {
         Set result = new HashSet<>();
-        for (Integer v : base) {
-            if (neighbors.contains(v)) {
+        for (int v : base) {
+            if (filter.contains(v)) {
                 result.add(v);
             }
         }
         return result;
     }
 }
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 6. Algorithm orchestrator
+//    (SRP: only responsible for the recursive enumeration logic;
+//     DIP: depends on Graph and PivotStrategy abstractions)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Enumerates all maximal cliques using the Bron–Kerbosch algorithm with pivoting.
+ *
+ * 
The solver is constructed with a {@link PivotStrategy}, making the pivot
+ * heuristic interchangeable without modifying this class (OCP).

+ */
+final class BronKerboschSolver {
+
+    private final PivotStrategy pivotStrategy;
+
+    /**
+     * Creates a solver using the supplied pivot strategy.
+     *
+     * @param pivotStrategy the strategy for choosing a pivot vertex; must not be null
+     */
+    BronKerboschSolver(PivotStrategy pivotStrategy) {
+        if (pivotStrategy == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("PivotStrategy must not be null");
+        }
+        this.pivotStrategy = pivotStrategy;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Finds all maximal cliques in {@code graph}.
+     *
+     * @param graph the graph to search
+     * @return a list of maximal cliques, each as an unmodifiable set of vertices
+     */
+    List> findMaximalCliques(Graph graph) {
+        List> cliques = new ArrayList<>();
+        enumerate(SearchState.initial(graph.size()), graph, cliques);
+        return cliques;
+    }
+
+    private void enumerate(SearchState state, Graph graph, List> cliques) {
+        if (state.isMaximalClique()) {
+            cliques.add(state.clique);
+            return;
+        }
+
+        int pivot = pivotStrategy.choosePivot(state.candidates, state.excluded, graph);
+        Set pivotNeighbours = pivot == -1 ? new HashSet<>() : graph.neighbours(pivot);
+
+        // Iterate over P \ N(pivot) — a snapshot copy is needed since state is immutable anyway
+        Set toExpand = new HashSet<>(state.candidates);
+        toExpand.removeAll(pivotNeighbours);
+
+        SearchState current = state;
+        for (int vertex : toExpand) {
+            enumerate(current.expandWith(vertex, graph), graph, cliques);
+            current = current.processVertex(vertex);
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// 7. Public façade  (preserves the original public API surface exactly)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/**
+ * Public entry point for maximal-clique enumeration via the Bron–Kerbosch algorithm.
+ *
+ * 
This façade wires together {@link GraphValidator}, {@link AdjacencyListGraph},
+ * {@link MaxDegreePivotStrategy}, and {@link BronKerboschSolver}, keeping all
+ * callers insulated from the internal decomposition.

+ *
+ * @see 
+ *     Wikipedia: Bron–Kerbosch algorithm
+ */
+public final class BronKerbosch {
+
+    private BronKerbosch() {}
+
+    /**
+     * Finds all maximal cliques of the provided graph.
+     *
+     * @param adjacency adjacency list where {@code adjacency.size()} equals the number of vertices
+     * @return a list containing every maximal clique, each represented as a {@link Set} of vertices
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the adjacency list is {@code null}, contains {@code null}
+     *         entries, or references invalid vertices
+     */
+    public static List> findMaximalCliques(List> adjacency) {
+        GraphValidator.validate(adjacency);
+        Graph graph = new AdjacencyListGraph(adjacency);
+        BronKerboschSolver solver = new BronKerboschSolver(new MaxDegreePivotStrategy());
+        return solver.findMaximalCliques(graph);
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java
index f397989911d9..199a51e310f6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ConstrainedShortestPath.java
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ public class ConstrainedShortestPath {
      */
     public static class Graph {
 
-        private List> adjacencyList;
+        private final List> adjacencyList;
 
         public Graph(int numNodes) {
             adjacencyList = new ArrayList<>();
@@ -61,8 +61,8 @@ public record Edge(int from, int to, int cost, int resource) {
         }
     }
 
-    private Graph graph;
-    private int maxResource;
+    private final Graph graph;
+    private final int maxResource;
 
     /**
      * Constructs a CSPSolver with the given graph and maximum resource constraint.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java
index c45bd62ddfbb..0f1917a507cd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/Dinic.java
@@ -35,85 +35,125 @@ private Dinic() {
      *     indices invalid
      */
     public static int maxFlow(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        validateInput(capacity, source, sink);
+
+        if (source == sink) {
+            return 0;
+        }
+
+        int[][] residual = buildResidualGraph(capacity);
+        return computeMaxFlow(residual, source, sink);
+    }
+
+    private static void validateInput(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        validateCapacityMatrix(capacity);
+        validateSourceAndSink(capacity.length, source, sink);
+    }
+
+    private static void validateCapacityMatrix(int[][] capacity) {
         if (capacity == null || capacity.length == 0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must not be null or empty");
         }
-        final int n = capacity.length;
-        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            if (capacity[i] == null || capacity[i].length != n) {
+
+        int n = capacity.length;
+        for (int[] ints : capacity) {
+            if (ints == null || ints.length != n) {
                 throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must be square");
             }
-            for (int j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-                if (capacity[i][j] < 0) {
-                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
-                }
+            validateNonNegativeRow(ints);
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void validateNonNegativeRow(int[] row) {
+        for (int value : row) {
+            if (value < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
             }
         }
-        if (source < 0 || sink < 0 || source >= n || sink >= n) {
+    }
+
+    private static void validateSourceAndSink(int vertexCount, int source, int sink) {
+        if (source < 0 || sink < 0 || source >= vertexCount || sink >= vertexCount) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source and sink must be valid vertex indices");
         }
-        if (source == sink) {
-            return 0;
-        }
+    }
 
-        // residual capacities
+    private static int[][] buildResidualGraph(int[][] capacity) {
+        int n = capacity.length;
         int[][] residual = new int[n][n];
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             residual[i] = Arrays.copyOf(capacity[i], n);
         }
+        return residual;
+    }
 
+    private static int computeMaxFlow(int[][] residual, int source, int sink) {
+        int n = residual.length;
         int[] level = new int[n];
         int flow = 0;
+
         while (bfsBuildLevelGraph(residual, source, sink, level)) {
-            int[] next = new int[n]; // current-edge optimization
-            int pushed;
-            do {
-                pushed = dfsBlocking(residual, level, next, source, sink, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
-                flow += pushed;
-            } while (pushed > 0);
+            int[] next = new int[n];
+            flow += sendBlockingFlow(residual, level, next, source, sink);
         }
+
         return flow;
     }
 
+    private static int sendBlockingFlow(int[][] residual, int[] level, int[] next, int source, int sink) {
+        int totalPushed = 0;
+        int pushed;
+
+        do {
+            pushed = dfsBlocking(residual, level, next, source, sink, Integer.MAX_VALUE);
+            totalPushed += pushed;
+        } while (pushed > 0);
+
+        return totalPushed;
+    }
+
     private static boolean bfsBuildLevelGraph(int[][] residual, int source, int sink, int[] level) {
         Arrays.fill(level, -1);
         level[source] = 0;
-        Queue q = new ArrayDeque<>();
-        q.add(source);
-        while (!q.isEmpty()) {
-            int u = q.poll();
+
+        Queue queue = new ArrayDeque<>();
+        queue.add(source);
+
+        while (!queue.isEmpty()) {
+            int u = queue.poll();
             for (int v = 0; v < residual.length; v++) {
                 if (residual[u][v] > 0 && level[v] == -1) {
                     level[v] = level[u] + 1;
                     if (v == sink) {
                         return true;
                     }
-                    q.add(v);
+                    queue.add(v);
                 }
             }
         }
+
         return level[sink] != -1;
     }
 
-    private static int dfsBlocking(int[][] residual, int[] level, int[] next, int u, int sink, int f) {
+    private static int dfsBlocking(int[][] residual, int[] level, int[] next, int u, int sink, int flow) {
         if (u == sink) {
-            return f;
+            return flow;
         }
-        final int n = residual.length;
+
+        int n = residual.length;
         for (int v = next[u]; v < n; v++, next[u] = v) {
-            if (residual[u][v] <= 0) {
+            if (residual[u][v] <= 0 || level[v] != level[u] + 1) {
                 continue;
             }
-            if (level[v] != level[u] + 1) {
-                continue;
-            }
-            int pushed = dfsBlocking(residual, level, next, v, sink, Math.min(f, residual[u][v]));
+
+            int pushed = dfsBlocking(residual, level, next, v, sink, Math.min(flow, residual[u][v]));
             if (pushed > 0) {
                 residual[u][v] -= pushed;
                 residual[v][u] += pushed;
                 return pushed;
             }
         }
+
         return 0;
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java
index 59e7b09cb49c..4ca6c2e1d813 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/EdmondsKarp.java
@@ -37,21 +37,7 @@ public static int maxFlow(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must not be null or empty");
         }
 
-        final int n = capacity.length;
-        for (int row = 0; row < n; row++) {
-            if (capacity[row] == null || capacity[row].length != n) {
-                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must be square");
-            }
-            for (int col = 0; col < n; col++) {
-                if (capacity[row][col] < 0) {
-                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        if (source < 0 || source >= n || sink < 0 || sink >= n) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source and sink must be valid vertex indices");
-        }
+        final int n = getN(capacity, source, sink);
         if (source == sink) {
             return 0;
         }
@@ -83,6 +69,25 @@ public static int maxFlow(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
         return maxFlow;
     }
 
+    private static int getN(int[][] capacity, int source, int sink) {
+        final int n = capacity.length;
+        for (int[] ints : capacity) {
+            if (ints == null || ints.length != n) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacity matrix must be square");
+            }
+            for (int col = 0; col < n; col++) {
+                if (ints[col] < 0) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Capacities must be non-negative");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        if (source < 0 || source >= n || sink < 0 || sink >= n) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Source and sink must be valid vertex indices");
+        }
+        return n;
+    }
+
     private static boolean bfs(int[][] residual, int source, int sink, int[] parent) {
         Arrays.fill(parent, -1);
         parent[source] = source;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java
index 82da5c8163e5..96e883e33dac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPath.java
@@ -7,16 +7,16 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * Implementation of Hierholzer's Algorithm for finding an Eulerian Path or Circuit
+ * Implementation of Hierholzer's Algorithm for finding a Eulerian Path or Circuit
  * in a directed graph.
  *
  * 

- * An Eulerian Circuit is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex
+ * A Eulerian Circuit is a path that starts and ends at the same vertex
  * and visits every edge exactly once.
  * 

  *
  * 

- * An Eulerian Path visits every edge exactly once but may start and end
+ * A Eulerian Path visits every edge exactly once but may start and end
  * at different vertices.
  * 

  *
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ public HierholzerEulerianPath(Graph graph) {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Finds an Eulerian Path or Circuit using Hierholzer’s Algorithm.
+     * Finds a Eulerian Path or Circuit using Hierholzer’s Algorithm.
      *
      * @return list of vertices representing the Eulerian Path/Circuit,
      *         or an empty list if none exists
@@ -225,7 +225,7 @@ private List rotateEulerianCircuitIfNeeded(List path, int[] ou
                 }
             }
 
-            if (preferredStart != -1 && path.get(0) != preferredStart) {
+            if (preferredStart != -1 && path.getFirst() != preferredStart) {
                 int idx = 0;
                 for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
                     if (node == preferredStart) {
@@ -235,28 +235,32 @@ private List rotateEulerianCircuitIfNeeded(List path, int[] ou
                 }
 
                 if (idx > 0) {
-                    List rotated = new ArrayList<>();
-                    int currentIndex = 0;
-                    for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
-                        if (currentIndex >= idx) {
-                            rotated.add(node);
-                        }
-                        currentIndex++;
-                    }
-                    currentIndex = 0;
-                    for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
-                        if (currentIndex < idx) {
-                            rotated.add(node);
-                        }
-                        currentIndex++;
-                    }
-                    path = rotated;
+                    path = getIntegerList(path, idx);
                 }
             }
         }
         return path;
     }
 
+    private static List getIntegerList(List path, int idx) {
+        List rotated = new ArrayList<>();
+        int currentIndex = 0;
+        for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
+            if (currentIndex >= idx) {
+                rotated.add(node);
+            }
+            currentIndex++;
+        }
+        currentIndex = 0;
+        for (Integer node : path) { // replaced indexed loop
+            if (currentIndex < idx) {
+                rotated.add(node);
+            }
+            currentIndex++;
+        }
+        return rotated;
+    }
+
     /**
      * Checks weak connectivity (undirected) among vertices that have non-zero degree.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java
index 76f7f3eaa3a7..839fdec8c776 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HopcroftKarp.java
@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@
 
 /**
  * Hopcroft–Karp algorithm for maximum bipartite matching.
- *
+ * 

  * Left part: vertices [0,nLeft-1], Right part: [0,nRight-1].
  * Adjacency list: for each left vertex u, list right vertices v it connects to.
- *
+ * 

  * Time complexity: O(E * sqrt(V)).
  *
  * @see 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagner.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagner.java
index b204834c431a..e0985bc038c0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagner.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagner.java
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
  * An implementation of the Stoer-Wagner algorithm to find the global minimum cut of an undirected, weighted graph.
  * A minimum cut is a partition of the graph's vertices into two disjoint sets with the minimum possible edge weight
  * sum connecting the two sets.
- *
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoer%E2%80%93Wagner_algorithm
+ * 

+ * Wikipedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoer%E2%80%93Wagner_algorithm
  * Time Complexity: O(V^3) where V is the number of vertices.
  */
 public class StoerWagner {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java
index ba75b2f4b1b8..1979bbc707c8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized.java
@@ -8,10 +8,6 @@
 
 /**
  * Finds the strongly connected components in a directed graph.
- *
- * @param adjList The adjacency list representation of the graph.
- * @param n The number of nodes in the graph.
- * @return The number of strongly connected components.
  */
 public class StronglyConnectedComponentOptimized {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TarjanBridges.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TarjanBridges.java
index dbe2e710429a..427e362631e5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TarjanBridges.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/TarjanBridges.java
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ private static class BridgeFinder {
         private final List bridges;
         private final int[] discoveryTime;
         private final int[] lowLink;
-        boolean[] visited;
+        final boolean[] visited;
         private int timer;
 
         BridgeFinder(int vertexCount, List> adjacencyList, List bridges) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java
index dfc8386de6ce..a9318c74dee0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/YensKShortestPaths.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
  * All existing edge weights must be non-negative. Zero-weight edges are allowed.

  *
  * 
References:
- * - Wikipedia: Yen's algorithm (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen%27s_algorithm)
+ * - Wikipedia: Yen's algorithm (...)
  * - Dijkstra's algorithm for the base shortest path computation.

  */
 public final class YensKShortestPaths {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java
index 53181a654215..0c4dc55b8581 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/ZeroOneBfs.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
  *
  * 
References:
  * 
    
- *   
  • https://cp-algorithms.com/graph/01_bfs.html
    • 
+ *   
  • ...
    • 
  * 

  */
 public final class ZeroOneBfs {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java
index 54ba4eb650a8..6741d978b2f6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/ActivitySelection.java
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ private ActivitySelection() {
 
     /**
      * Function to perform activity selection using a greedy approach.
-     *
+     * 

      * The goal is to select the maximum number of activities that don't overlap
      * with each other, based on their start and end times. Activities are chosen
      * such that no two selected activities overlap.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java
index 9535a7c6190e..816b7ecb7c00 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/FractionalKnapsack.java
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@
  * The FractionalKnapsack class provides a method to solve the fractional knapsack problem
  * using a greedy algorithm approach. It allows for selecting fractions of items to maximize
  * the total value in a knapsack with a given weight capacity.
- *
+ * 

  * The problem consists of a set of items, each with a weight and a value, and a knapsack
  * that can carry a maximum weight. The goal is to maximize the value of items in the knapsack,
  * allowing for the inclusion of fractions of items.
- *
- * Problem Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_knapsack_problem
+ * 

+ * ProbleLink: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_knapsack_problem
  */
 public final class FractionalKnapsack {
     private FractionalKnapsack() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java
index a4a0366375eb..79bd1071d106 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/GaleShapley.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Implementation of the Gale-Shapley Algorithm for Stable Matching.
- * Problem link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_marriage_problem
+ * Problem link: ...
  */
 public final class GaleShapley {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java
index ceb664a31e8a..b16b58866a41 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/JobSequencing.java
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@ private JobSequencing() {
 
     // Define a Job class that implements Comparable for sorting by profit in descending order
     static class Job implements Comparable {
-        char id;
-        int deadline;
-        int profit;
+        final char id;
+        final int deadline;
+        final int profit;
 
         // Compare jobs by profit in descending order
         @Override
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java
index 07bd0b73326f..ddefea867c2f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MergeIntervals.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 /**
  * Problem Statement:
  * Given an array of intervals where intervals[i] = [starti, endi].
- *
+ * 

  * Merge all overlapping intervals and return an array of the non-overlapping
  * intervals
  * that cover all the intervals in the input.
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ private MergeIntervals() {
 
     /**
      * Merges overlapping intervals from the given array of intervals.
-     *
+     * 

      * The method sorts the intervals by their start time, then iterates through the
      * sorted intervals
      * and merges overlapping intervals. If an interval overlaps with the last
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ private MergeIntervals() {
      * @param intervals A 2D array representing intervals where each element is an
      *                  interval [starti, endi].
      * @return A 2D array of merged intervals where no intervals overlap.
-     *
+     * 

      *         Example:
      *         Input: {{1, 3}, {2, 6}, {8, 10}, {15, 18}}
      *         Output: {{1, 6}, {8, 10}, {15, 18}}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java
index c7f219ef3eab..ec6c8aef6d12 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/MinimizingLateness.java
@@ -7,11 +7,11 @@ private MinimizingLateness() {
     }
 
     public static class Job {
-        String jobName;
+        final String jobName;
         int startTime = 0;
         int lateness = 0;
-        int processingTime;
-        int deadline;
+        final int processingTime;
+        final int deadline;
 
         public Job(String jobName, int processingTime, int deadline) {
             this.jobName = jobName;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java
index 6e8611b86332..4fee4c4f0376 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherland.java
@@ -7,15 +7,15 @@
  * @author shikarisohan
  * @since 10/4/24
  * Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm
- *
+ * 

  * This algorithm is used to clip a line segment to a rectangular window.
  * It assigns a region code to each endpoint of the line segment, and
  * then efficiently determines whether the line segment is fully inside,
  * fully outside, or partially inside the window.
- *
- * Reference:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohen%E2%80%93Sutherland_algorithm
- *
+ * 

+ * Refere* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohen%E2%80%93Sutherland_algorithm
+ * 

  * Clipping window boundaries are defined as (xMin, yMin) and (xMax, yMax).
  * The algorithm computes the clipped line segment if it's partially or
  * fully inside the clipping window.
@@ -30,10 +30,10 @@ public class CohenSutherland {
     private static final int TOP = 8; // 1000
 
     // Define the clipping window
-    double xMin;
-    double yMin;
-    double xMax;
-    double yMax;
+    final double xMin;
+    final double yMin;
+    final double xMax;
+    final double yMax;
 
     public CohenSutherland(double xMin, double yMin, double xMax, double yMax) {
         this.xMin = xMin;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java
index 723e2bb2fbf9..67d9439de50b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarsky.java
@@ -14,8 +14,8 @@
  *  * if any, and returns the clipped line that lies inside the window.
  *  *
  *  * Reference:
- *  * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang%E2%80%93Barsky_algorithm
- *
+ *  * ...
+ * 

  * Clipping window boundaries are defined as (xMin, yMin) and (xMax, yMax).
  * The algorithm computes the clipped line segment if it's partially or
  * fully inside the clipping window.
@@ -23,10 +23,10 @@
 public class LiangBarsky {
 
     // Define the clipping window
-    double xMin;
-    double xMax;
-    double yMin;
-    double yMax;
+    final double xMin;
+    final double xMax;
+    final double yMin;
+    final double yMax;
 
     public LiangBarsky(double xMin, double yMin, double xMax, double yMax) {
         this.xMin = xMin;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbundantNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbundantNumber.java
index 804ac4d71477..b945885ffe07 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbundantNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AbundantNumber.java
@@ -4,10 +4,10 @@
  * In number theory, an abundant number or excessive number is a positive integer for which
  * the sum of its proper divisors is greater than the number.
  * Equivalently, it is a number for which the sum of proper divisors (or aliquot sum) is greater than n.
- *
+ * 

  * The integer 12 is the first abundant number. Its proper divisors are 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 for a total of 16.
- *
- * Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundant_number
+ * 

+ Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundant_number
  */
 public final class AbundantNumber {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java
index 996843b56826..98211df9ef79 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AliquotSum.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * all proper divisors of n, that is, all divisors of n other than n itself. For
  * example, the proper divisors of 15 (that is, the positive divisors of 15 that
  * are not equal to 15) are 1, 3 and 5, so the aliquot sum of 15 is 9 i.e. (1 +
- * 3 + 5). Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliquot_sum
+ * 3 + 5). Wikipedia: ...
  */
 public final class AliquotSum {
     private AliquotSum() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java
index b30831bfdc58..016870692828 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/AmicableNumber.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
  * It is unknown if there are infinitely many pairs of amicable numbers.
  *
  * 

- * link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amicable_numbers
+ * link: ...
  * 

  * Simple Example: (220, 284)
  * 220 is divisible by {1,2,4,5,10,11,20,22,44,55,110} <-SUM = 284
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ private AmicableNumber() {
      *
      * @param from range start value
      * @param to   range end value (inclusive)
-     * @return list with amicable numbers found in given range.
+     * @return set with amicable numbers found in given range.
      */
     public static Set> findAllInRange(int from, int to) {
         if (from <= 0 || to <= 0 || to < from) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java
index 84fc67159379..c588992e3259 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Area.java
@@ -21,6 +21,12 @@ private Area() {
      * String of IllegalArgumentException for base
      */
     private static final String POSITIVE_BASE = "Base must be greater than 0";
+    private static final String POSITIVE_SIDE_LENGTH = "Side length must be greater than 0";
+    private static final String POSITIVE_LENGTH = "Length must be greater than 0";
+    private static final String POSITIVE_WIDTH = "Width must be greater than 0";
+    private static final String POSITIVE_SLANT_HEIGHT = "Slant height must be greater than 0";
+    private static final String POSITIVE_BASE_1 = "First base must be greater than 0";
+    private static final String POSITIVE_BASE_2 = "Second base must be greater than 0";
 
     /**
      * Calculate the surface area of a cube.
@@ -30,7 +36,7 @@ private Area() {
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaCube(final double sideLength) {
         if (sideLength <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Side length must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_SIDE_LENGTH);
         }
         return 6 * sideLength * sideLength;
     }
@@ -43,15 +49,15 @@ public static double surfaceAreaCube(final double sideLength) {
      * @param height height of the cuboid
      * @return surface area of given cuboid
      */
-    public static double surfaceAreaCuboid(final double length, double width, double height) {
+    public static double surfaceAreaCuboid(final double length, final double width,final double height) {
         if (length <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Length must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_LENGTH);
         }
         if (width <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Width must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_WIDTH);
         }
         if (height <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Height must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
         }
         return 2 * (length * width + length * height + width * height);
     }
@@ -78,10 +84,10 @@ public static double surfaceAreaSphere(final double radius) {
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaPyramid(final double sideLength, final double slantHeight) {
         if (sideLength <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_SIDE_LENGTH);
         }
         if (slantHeight <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("slant height must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_SLANT_HEIGHT);
         }
         double baseArea = sideLength * sideLength;
         double lateralSurfaceArea = 2 * sideLength * slantHeight;
@@ -93,14 +99,14 @@ public static double surfaceAreaPyramid(final double sideLength, final double sl
      *
      * @param length length of a rectangle
      * @param width  width of a rectangle
-     * @return area of given rectangle
+     * @return surface area of given rectangle
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaRectangle(final double length, final double width) {
         if (length <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Length must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_LENGTH);
         }
         if (width <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Width must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_WIDTH);
         }
         return length * width;
     }
@@ -108,9 +114,9 @@ public static double surfaceAreaRectangle(final double length, final double widt
     /**
      * Calculate surface area of a cylinder.
      *
-     * @param radius radius of the floor
+     * @param radius radius of the base circle
      * @param height height of the cylinder.
-     * @return volume of given cylinder
+     * @return surface area of given cylinder
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaCylinder(final double radius, final double height) {
         if (radius <= 0) {
@@ -126,11 +132,11 @@ public static double surfaceAreaCylinder(final double radius, final double heigh
      * Calculate the area of a square.
      *
      * @param sideLength side length of square
-     * @return area of given square
+     * @return surface area of given square
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaSquare(final double sideLength) {
         if (sideLength <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Side Length must be greater than 0");
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_SIDE_LENGTH);
         }
         return sideLength * sideLength;
     }
@@ -138,9 +144,9 @@ public static double surfaceAreaSquare(final double sideLength) {
     /**
      * Calculate the area of a triangle.
      *
-     * @param base   base of triangle
+     * @param baseLength base of triangle
      * @param height height of triangle
-     * @return area of given triangle
+     * @return surface area of given triangle
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaTriangle(final double baseLength, final double height) {
         if (baseLength <= 0) {
@@ -155,9 +161,9 @@ public static double surfaceAreaTriangle(final double baseLength, final double h
     /**
      * Calculate the area of a parallelogram.
      *
-     * @param base   base of a parallelogram
+     * @param baseLength   base of a parallelogram
      * @param height height of a parallelogram
-     * @return area of given parallelogram
+     * @return surface area of given parallelogram
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaParallelogram(final double baseLength, final double height) {
         if (baseLength <= 0) {
@@ -172,17 +178,17 @@ public static double surfaceAreaParallelogram(final double baseLength, final dou
     /**
      * Calculate the area of a trapezium.
      *
-     * @param base1  upper base of trapezium
-     * @param base2  bottom base of trapezium
+     * @param baseLength1  upper base of trapezium
+     * @param baseLength2  bottom base of trapezium
      * @param height height of trapezium
-     * @return area of given trapezium
+     * @return surface area of given trapezium
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaTrapezium(final double baseLength1, final double baseLength2, final double height) {
         if (baseLength1 <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE + 1);
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE_1 );
         }
         if (baseLength2 <= 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE + 2);
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_BASE_2 );
         }
         if (height <= 0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
@@ -194,10 +200,10 @@ public static double surfaceAreaTrapezium(final double baseLength1, final double
      * Calculate the area of a circle.
      *
      * @param radius radius of circle
-     * @return area of given circle
+     * @return surface area of given circle
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaCircle(final double radius) {
-        if (radius <= 0) {
+        if (radius <= 0.0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
         }
         return Math.PI * radius * radius;
@@ -210,7 +216,7 @@ public static double surfaceAreaCircle(final double radius) {
      * @return surface area of given hemisphere
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaHemisphere(final double radius) {
-        if (radius <= 0) {
+        if (radius <= 0.0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
         }
         return 3 * Math.PI * radius * radius;
@@ -224,10 +230,10 @@ public static double surfaceAreaHemisphere(final double radius) {
      * @return surface area of given cone.
      */
     public static double surfaceAreaCone(final double radius, final double height) {
-        if (radius <= 0) {
+        if (radius <= 0.0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_RADIUS);
         }
-        if (height <= 0) {
+        if (height <= 0.0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException(POSITIVE_HEIGHT);
         }
         return Math.PI * radius * (radius + Math.pow(height * height + radius * radius, 0.5));
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java
index 9a7a014ec99f..d4de9e99d7bb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Armstrong.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * This class checks whether a given number is an Armstrong number or not.
  * An Armstrong number is a number that is equal to the sum of its own digits,
  * each raised to the power of the number of digits.
- *
+ * 

  * For example, 370 is an Armstrong number because 3^3 + 7^3 + 0^3 = 370.
  * 1634 is an Armstrong number because 1^4 + 6^4 + 3^4 + 4^4 = 1634.
  * An Armstrong number is often called a Narcissistic number.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChebyshevIteration.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChebyshevIteration.java
index bc30f1ba6e7e..005799957ee0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChebyshevIteration.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ChebyshevIteration.java
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
  * m(A) (smallest eigenvalue) and M(A) (largest eigenvalue).
  *
  * 

- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chebyshev_iteration
+ * Wikipedia: ...
  *
  * @author Mitrajit Ghorui(KeyKyrios)
  */
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ public static double[] solve(double[][] a, double[] b, double[] x0, double minEi
         double d = (maxEigenvalue + minEigenvalue) / 2.0;
         double c = (maxEigenvalue - minEigenvalue) / 2.0;
 
-        double alpha = 0.0;
+        double alpha;
         double alphaPrev = 0.0;
 
         for (int k = 0; k < maxIterations; k++) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java
index 87fc5af57b8d..9d15883ffc34 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/CircularConvolutionFFT.java
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ private static void padding(Collection x, int newSize) {
      * FFT algorithm for faster calculations of the two DFTs and the final IDFT.
      *
      * 

-     * More info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution_theorem
+     * More info: ...
      *
      * @param a The first signal.
      * @param b The other signal.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java
index 2b4a78613190..34fca3a20cef 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Combinations.java
@@ -40,8 +40,6 @@ public static long combinations(int n, int k) {
      * Using this base value and above formula we can compute the next term
      * nC(k+1)
      *
-     * @param n
-     * @param k
      * @return nCk
      */
     public static long combinationsOptimized(int n, int k) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java
index ed1ba1bbefc3..ac2fe09b1583 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ConvolutionFFT.java
@@ -38,8 +38,8 @@ private static void padding(Collection x, int newSize) {
      * for faster calculations of the two DFTs and the final IDFT.
      *
      * 

-     * More info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution_theorem
-     * https://ccrma.stanford.edu/~jos/ReviewFourier/FFT_Convolution.html
+     * More info: ...
+     * ...
      *
      * @param a The first signal.
      * @param b The other signal.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java
index b652d4903da8..8d429c993f0f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DeterminantOfMatrix.java
@@ -18,8 +18,8 @@ private DeterminantOfMatrix() {
     static int determinant(int[][] a, int n) {
         int det = 0;
         int sign = 1;
-        int p = 0;
-        int q = 0;
+        int p;
+        int q;
         if (n == 1) {
             det = a[0][0];
         } else {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java
index e8f5305c7569..a7f5cc3269fa 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DigitalRoot.java
@@ -4,13 +4,13 @@
  * @author Suraj Kumar Modi
  * You are given a number n. You need to find the digital root of n.
  * DigitalRoot of a number is the recursive sum of its digits until we get a single digit number.
- *
+ * 

  * Test Case 1:
  * Input:
  * n = 1
  * Output:  1
  * Explanation: Digital root of 1 is 1
- *
+ * 

  * Test Case 2:
  * Input:
  * n = 99999
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceBetweenTwoPoints.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceBetweenTwoPoints.java
index cd1c9205b328..acc34a633401 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceBetweenTwoPoints.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceBetweenTwoPoints.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  *
  * 
Formula: d = sqrt((x2 - x1)^2 + (y2 - y1)^2)
  *
- * 
Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_distance
+ * 
Reference: ...
  */
 public final class DistanceBetweenTwoPoints {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java
index f7e2c7629551..28771ae149ac 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/DistanceFormula.java
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ public static int hammingDistance(int[] b1, int[] b2) {
     }
 
     public static double minkowskiDistance(double[] p1, double[] p2, int p) {
-        double d = 0;
+        double d;
         double distance = 0.0;
 
         if (p1.length != p2.length) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java
index 3663b6c534aa..728af7291862 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethod.java
@@ -12,8 +12,8 @@
  * is calculated by evaluating the differential equation at the previous step,
  * multiplying the result with the step-size and adding it to the last y-value:
  * y_n+1 = y_n + stepSize * f(x_n, y_n). (description adapted from
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_method ) (see also:
- * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/euler-method-solving-differential-equation/ )
+ * ... ) (see also:
+ * ... )
  */
 public final class EulerMethod {
     private EulerMethod() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java
index 9a03f4e21d17..7341de13f48c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerPseudoprime.java
@@ -5,12 +5,12 @@
 
 /**
  * The {@code EulerPseudoprime} class implements the Euler primality test.
- *
+ * 

  * It is based on Euler’s criterion:
  * For an odd prime number {@code n} and any integer {@code a} coprime to {@code n}:
  *   a^((n-1)/2) ≡ (a/n) (mod n)
  * where (a/n) is the Jacobi symbol.
- *
+ * 

  * This algorithm is a stronger probabilistic test than Fermat’s test.
  * It may still incorrectly identify a composite as “probably prime” (Euler pseudoprime),
  * but such cases are rare.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EvilNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EvilNumber.java
index 419133702fd4..2b6c80cf09e6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EvilNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EvilNumber.java
@@ -3,9 +3,9 @@
 /**
  * In number theory, an evil number is a non-negative integer that has an even number of 1s in its binary expansion.
  * Non-negative integers that are not evil are called odious numbers.
- *
- * Evil Number Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_number
- * Odious Number Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odious_number
+ * 

+ * Evil Number Wihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_number
+ * Odious Number Wihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odious_number
  */
 public final class EvilNumber {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ExtendedEuclideanAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ExtendedEuclideanAlgorithm.java
index 4934d4493bf2..0649708df4e5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ExtendedEuclideanAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/ExtendedEuclideanAlgorithm.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  *
  * 

  * For more details, see
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Euclidean_algorithm
+ * ...
  */
 public final class ExtendedEuclideanAlgorithm {
 
@@ -40,9 +40,8 @@ public static long[] extendedGCD(long a, long b) {
         long y1 = result[2];
 
         // Update coefficients using the results from the recursive call
-        long x = y1;
         long y = x1 - a / b * y1;
 
-        return new long[] {gcd, x, y};
+        return new long[] {gcd, y1, y};
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java
index 91754bd1a80b..f0a3ff5f0522 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFT.java
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ private FFT() {
      *
      * 

      * More info:
-     * https://introcs.cs.princeton.edu/java/32class/Complex.java.html
+     * ...
      */
     static class Complex {
 
@@ -183,14 +183,13 @@ public double imaginary() {
      *
      * 

      * More info:
-     * https://www.algorithm-archive.org/contents/cooley_tukey/cooley_tukey.html
-     * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/iterative-fast-fourier-transformation-polynomial-multiplication/
-     * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooley%E2%80%93Tukey_FFT_algorithm
-     * https://cp-algorithms.com/algebra/fft.html
+     * ...
+     * ...
+     * ...
+     * ...
      *  @param x The discrete signal which is then converted to the FFT or the
      * IFFT of signal x.
      * @param inverse True if you want to find the inverse FFT.
-     * @return
      */
     public static ArrayList fft(ArrayList x, boolean inverse) {
         /* Pad the signal with zeros if necessary */
@@ -260,8 +259,8 @@ public static ArrayList inverseFFT(int n, boolean inverse, ArrayList
-     * More info: https://cp-algorithms.com/algebra/fft.html
-     * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/write-an-efficient-c-program-to-reverse-bits-of-a-number/
+     * More info: ...
+     * ...
      *
      * @param num The integer you want to reverse its bits.
      * @param log2n The number of bits you want to reverse.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java
index 7a03c20cc642..7c81f5416c4a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FFTBluestein.java
@@ -19,8 +19,8 @@ private FFTBluestein() {
      *
      * 

      * More info:
-     * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirp_Z-transform#Bluestein.27s_algorithm
-     * http://tka4.org/materials/lib/Articles-Books/Numerical%20Algorithms/Hartley_Trasform/Bluestein%27s%20FFT%20algorithm%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.htm
+     * ...
+     * ...
      *
      * @param x The discrete signal which is then converted to the FFT or the
      * IFFT of signal x.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java
index 27f49e27ff30..4cbf081b0846 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastExponentiation.java
@@ -14,8 +14,8 @@
  * 

  *
  * 
Time complexity: O(log(exp)) — much faster than naive exponentiation (O(exp)).

- *
- * For more information, please visit {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation_by_squaring}
+ /**
+ * For more information, please visit Exponentiation by Squaring
  */
 public final class FastExponentiation {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java
index 01a52b913d30..48dbff494f9e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FastInverseSqrt.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ private FastInverseSqrt() {
      * Returns the inverse square root of the given number upto 6 - 8 decimal places.
      * calculates the inverse square root of the given number and returns true if calculated answer
      * matches with given answer else returns false
-     *
+     * 

      * OUTPUT :
      * Input - number = 4522
      * Output: it calculates the inverse squareroot of a number and returns true with it matches the
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java
index 781275d3130d..a8c6cef46ad7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciNumberCheck.java
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ public static boolean isPerfectSquare(long number) {
      * @param number the number
      * @return true if {@code number} is a Fibonacci number, otherwise
      *         false
-     * @link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number#Identification
+     * @link ...
      */
     public static boolean isFibonacciNumber(long number) {
         long value1 = 5 * number * number + 4;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java
index df27516367b2..d92ad8a49b85 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCD.java
@@ -2,14 +2,14 @@
 
 /**
  *  This class provides methods to compute the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two or more integers.
- *
+ * 

  * The Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) of two or more integers is the largest positive integer that divides each of the integers without leaving a remainder.
- *
+ * 

  * The GCD can be computed using the Euclidean algorithm, which is based on the principle that the GCD of two numbers also divides their difference.
- *
+ * 

  * For more information, refer to the
  * Greatest Common Divisor Wikipedia page.
- *
+ * 

  * Example usage:
  * 
  * int result1 = GCD.gcd(48, 18);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java
index e95ce97c8a04..6c251654f27b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GCDRecursion.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * @author https://github.com/shellhub/
+ * @author ...
  */
 public final class GCDRecursion {
     private GCDRecursion() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java
index 1e02579757cc..b3095437cd1f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Gaussian.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ private Gaussian() {
 
     public static ArrayList gaussian(int matSize, List matrix) {
         int i;
-        int j = 0;
+        int j;
 
         double[][] mat = new double[matSize + 1][matSize + 1];
         double[][] x = new double[matSize][matSize + 1];
@@ -21,14 +21,15 @@ public static ArrayList gaussian(int matSize, List matrix) {
             }
         }
 
-        mat = gaussianElimination(matSize, i, mat);
+        mat = gaussianElimination(matSize, mat);
         return valueOfGaussian(matSize, x, mat);
     }
 
     // Perform Gaussian elimination
-    public static double[][] gaussianElimination(int matSize, int i, double[][] mat) {
-        int step = 0;
+    public static double[][] gaussianElimination(int matSize, double[][] mat) {
+        int step;
         for (step = 0; step < matSize - 1; step++) {
+            int i;
             for (i = step; i < matSize - 1; i++) {
                 double a = (mat[i + 1][step] / mat[step][step]);
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java
index e13efe5a77e0..89e9d0653385 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GenericRoot.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  * then 1 + 5 = 6, so the generic root is 6.
  * 

  * Reference:
- * https://technotip.com/6774/c-program-to-find-generic-root-of-a-number/
+ * ...
  */
 public final class GenericRoot {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java
index 4e962722ba88..4d48d0750467 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/GoldbachConjecture.java
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 /**
  * This is a representation of the unsolved problem of Goldbach's Projection, according to which every
  * even natural number greater than 2 can be written as the sum of 2 prime numbers
- * More info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldbach%27s_conjecture
- * @author Vasilis Sarantidis (https://github.com/BILLSARAN)
+ * More info: ...
+ * @author Vasilis Sarantidis (...)
  */
 
 public final class GoldbachConjecture {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java
index bfe746953b33..835d08b91410 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/HappyNumber.java
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ public static boolean isHappy(int n) {
 
     /**
      * Calculates the sum of squares of the digits of a number.
-     *
+     * 

      * Example:
      * num = 82 → 8² + 2² = 64 + 4 = 68
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java
index 98d839011a7f..c34207503e2a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/JosephusProblem.java
@@ -24,7 +24,8 @@ private JosephusProblem() {
     /**
      * Find the Winner of the Circular Game.
      *
-     * @param number of friends, n, and an integer k
+     * @param n number of friends
+     * @param k an integer
      * @return return the winner of the game
      */
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java
index 99842e2f4f5e..7206905becf7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbers.java
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
  *
  * @see Kaprekar Number
  *      - Wikipedia
- * @author TheAlgorithms (https://github.com/TheAlgorithms)
+ * @author TheAlgorithms (...)
  */
 public final class KaprekarNumbers {
     private KaprekarNumbers() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java
index 9ec11e9b3220..5b9f94c1b7f2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LeastCommonMultiple.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Is a common mathematics concept to find the smallest value number
  * that can be divide using either number without having the remainder.
- * https://maticschool.blogspot.com/2013/11/find-least-common-multiple-lcm.html
+ * ...
  * @author LauKinHoong
  */
 public final class LeastCommonMultiple {
@@ -30,12 +30,14 @@ public static int lcm(int num1, int num2) {
             num3 = num2;
         }
 
-        while (num1 != 0) {
-            if (high % num1 == 0 && high % num2 == 0) {
-                cmv = high;
-                break;
+        if (num1 != 0) {
+            while (true) {
+                if (high % num1 == 0 && high % num2 == 0) {
+                    cmv = high;
+                    break;
+                }
+                high += num3;
             }
-            high += num3;
         }
         return cmv;
     }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java
index 45e97b1c14c3..6592a3682578 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LongDivision.java
@@ -29,6 +29,23 @@ public static int divide(int dividend, int divisor) {
             return 0;
         }
 
+        StringBuilder answer = getStringBuilder(newDividend1, newDivisor1);
+
+        if ((dividend < 0 && divisor > 0) || (dividend > 0 && divisor < 0)) {
+            try {
+                return Integer.parseInt(answer.toString()) * (-1);
+            } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
+                return -2147483648;
+            }
+        }
+        try {
+            return Integer.parseInt(answer.toString());
+        } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
+            return 2147483647;
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static StringBuilder getStringBuilder(long newDividend1, long newDivisor1) {
         StringBuilder answer = new StringBuilder();
 
         String dividendString = "" + newDividend1;
@@ -37,7 +54,7 @@ public static int divide(int dividend, int divisor) {
         String remainder = "";
 
         for (int i = 0; i < dividendString.length(); i++) {
-            String partV1 = remainder + "" + dividendString.substring(lastIndex, i + 1);
+            String partV1 = remainder + dividendString.substring(lastIndex, i + 1);
             long part1 = Long.parseLong(partV1);
             if (part1 > newDivisor1) {
                 int quotient = 0;
@@ -55,7 +72,7 @@ public static int divide(int dividend, int divisor) {
                 answer.append(quotient);
             } else if (part1 == 0) {
                 answer.append(0);
-            } else if (part1 < newDivisor1) {
+            } else {
                 answer.append(0);
             }
             if (!(part1 == 0)) {
@@ -66,18 +83,6 @@ public static int divide(int dividend, int divisor) {
 
             lastIndex++;
         }
-
-        if ((dividend < 0 && divisor > 0) || (dividend > 0 && divisor < 0)) {
-            try {
-                return Integer.parseInt(answer.toString()) * (-1);
-            } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
-                return -2147483648;
-            }
-        }
-        try {
-            return Integer.parseInt(answer.toString());
-        } catch (NumberFormatException e) {
-            return 2147483647;
-        }
+        return answer;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LuckyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LuckyNumber.java
index 70308e1e0edd..24e3b0c9b98f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LuckyNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/LuckyNumber.java
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
  * This sieve is similar to the sieve of Eratosthenes that generates the primes,
  * but it eliminates numbers based on their position in the remaining set,
  * instead of their value (or position in the initial set of natural numbers).
- *
- * Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky_number
+ * 

+ * Wihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky_number
  */
 public final class LuckyNumber {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java
index 1cf3d8b7fc9a..5648c403a2f2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MathBuilder.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 import java.util.function.Function;
 
 /**
- * Author: Sadiul Hakim : https://github.com/sadiul-hakim
+ * Author: Sadiul Hakim : ...
  * Profession: Backend Engineer
  * Date: Oct 20, 2024
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java
index d77eb1d3f661..2e90437675e6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Means.java
@@ -1,8 +1,5 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import java.util.stream.StreamSupport;
-import org.apache.commons.collections4.IterableUtils;
-
 /**
  * Utility class for computing various types of statistical means.
  * 

@@ -47,10 +44,15 @@ private Means() {
      *      Mean
      */
     public static Double arithmetic(final Iterable numbers) {
-        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
-        double sum = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(0d, (x, y) -> x + y);
-        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
-        return sum / size;
+        checkNotNull(numbers);
+        double sum = 0.0;
+        int count = 0;
+        for (Double num : numbers) {
+            sum += num;
+            count++;
+        }
+        checkNotEmpty(count);
+        return sum / count;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -74,10 +76,18 @@ public static Double arithmetic(final Iterable numbers) {
      *      Mean
      */
     public static Double geometric(final Iterable numbers) {
-        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
-        double product = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(1d, (x, y) -> x * y);
-        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
-        return Math.pow(product, 1.0 / size);
+        checkNotNull(numbers);
+        double product = 1.0;
+        int count = 0;
+        for (Double num : numbers) {
+            if (num < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Geometric mean requires non-negative numbers");
+            }
+            product *= num;
+            count++;
+        }
+        checkNotEmpty(count);
+        return Math.pow(product, 1.0 / count);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -101,10 +111,18 @@ public static Double geometric(final Iterable numbers) {
      * @see Harmonic Mean
      */
     public static Double harmonic(final Iterable numbers) {
-        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
-        double sumOfReciprocals = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(0d, (x, y) -> x + 1d / y);
-        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
-        return size / sumOfReciprocals;
+        checkNotNull(numbers);
+        double sumOfReciprocals = 0.0;
+        int count = 0;
+        for (Double num : numbers) {
+            if (num == 0.0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Harmonic mean cannot contain zero values");
+            }
+            sumOfReciprocals += 1.0 / num;
+            count++;
+        }
+        checkNotEmpty(count);
+        return count / sumOfReciprocals;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -123,10 +141,15 @@ public static Double harmonic(final Iterable numbers) {
      *      Mean
      */
     public static Double quadratic(final Iterable numbers) {
-        checkIfNotEmpty(numbers);
-        double sumOfSquares = StreamSupport.stream(numbers.spliterator(), false).reduce(0d, (x, y) -> x + y * y);
-        int size = IterableUtils.size(numbers);
-        return Math.pow(sumOfSquares / size, 0.5);
+        checkNotNull(numbers);
+        double sumOfSquares = 0.0;
+        int count = 0;
+        for (Double num : numbers) {
+            sumOfSquares += num * num;
+            count++;
+        }
+        checkNotEmpty(count);
+        return Math.sqrt(sumOfSquares / count);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -135,9 +158,15 @@ public static Double quadratic(final Iterable numbers) {
      * @param numbers the input numbers to validate
      * @throws IllegalArgumentException if the input is empty
      */
-    private static void checkIfNotEmpty(final Iterable numbers) {
-        if (!numbers.iterator().hasNext()) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Empty list given for Mean computation.");
+    private static void checkNotNull(final Iterable numbers) {
+        if (numbers == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input iterable must not be null");
+        }
+    }
+
+    private static void checkNotEmpty(final int count) {
+        if (count == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input iterable must not be empty");
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Neville.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Neville.java
index ca45f2e8a042..96af22cbbaf1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Neville.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Neville.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
  * computes the value of this polynomial at a given point.
  *
  * 

- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville%27s_algorithm
+ * Wikipedia: ...
  *
  * @author Mitrajit Ghorui(KeyKyrios)
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java
index 9c95ebde3740..2c702f14f01b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NonRepeatingElement.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * Find the 2 elements which are non-repeating in an array
  * Reason to use bitwise operator: It makes our program faster as we are operating on bits and not
  * on actual numbers.
- *
+ * 

  * Explanation of the code:
  * Let us assume we have an array [1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4]
  * Property of XOR: num ^ num = 0.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java
index 2da22c4c8696..1e46aff10612 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/NthUglyNumber.java
@@ -1,80 +1,207 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-import static java.util.Collections.singletonList;
-
 import java.util.ArrayList;
-import java.util.Map;
-import org.apache.commons.lang3.tuple.MutablePair;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * @brief class computing the n-th ugly number (when they are sorted)
- * @details the ugly numbers with base [2, 3, 5] are all numbers of the form 2^a*3^b^5^c,
- *   where the exponents a, b, c are non-negative integers.
- *   Some properties of ugly numbers:
- *     - base [2, 3, 5] ugly numbers are the 5-smooth numbers, cf. https://oeis.org/A051037
- *     - base [2, 3, 5, 7] ugly numbers are 7-smooth numbers, cf. https://oeis.org/A002473
- *     - base [2] ugly numbers are the non-negative powers of 2,
- *     - the base [2, 3, 5] ugly numbers are the same as base [5, 6, 2, 3, 5] ugly numbers
+ * Computes the n-th ugly number (sorted ascending) for a given set of base factors.
+ *
+ * 
Ugly numbers are all positive integers expressible as a product of non-negative
+ * powers of the given base factors. For example:
+ * 
    
+ *   
  • Base [2, 3, 5] produces the 5-smooth numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, ...
+ *       (see OEIS A051037)
    • 
+ *   
  • Base [2, 3, 5, 7] produces the 7-smooth numbers
+ *       (see OEIS A002473)
    • 
+ *   
  • Base [2] produces non-negative powers of 2.
    • 
+ * 

+ *
+ * 
Design notes (SOLID):
+ * 
    
+ *   
  • SRP: Candidate generation is isolated in {@link BaseFactorCursor};
+ *       caching/sequencing lives only in {@link UglyNumberCache};
+ *       this class is a thin public facade.
    • 
+ *   
  • OCP: The candidate-selection strategy is expressed through
+ *       {@link CandidateSelector}, making it open for extension without modifying
+ *       this class.
    • 
+ *   
  • DIP: No dependency on Apache Commons or any concrete library type;
+ *       all collaborators are either JDK types or local abstractions.
    • 
+ * 

  */
 public class NthUglyNumber {
-    private ArrayList uglyNumbers = new ArrayList<>(singletonList(1L));
-    private ArrayList> positions = new ArrayList<>();
+
+    private final UglyNumberCache cache;
 
     /**
-     * @brief initialized the object allowing to compute ugly numbers with given base
-     * @param baseNumbers the given base of ugly numbers
-     * @exception IllegalArgumentException baseNumber is empty
+     * Constructs an instance for the given base factors.
+     *
+     * @param baseFactors non-empty array of positive integers that form the multiplication base
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code baseFactors} is empty
      */
-    NthUglyNumber(final int[] baseNumbers) {
-        if (baseNumbers.length == 0) {
-            throw new IllegalArgumentException("baseNumbers must be non-empty.");
-        }
-
-        for (final var baseNumber : baseNumbers) {
-            this.positions.add(MutablePair.of(baseNumber, 0));
+    public NthUglyNumber(final int[] baseFactors) {
+        if (baseFactors == null || baseFactors.length == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("baseFactors must be non-empty.");
         }
+        List cursors = buildCursors(baseFactors);
+        this.cache = new UglyNumberCache(cursors, new MinimalCandidateSelector());
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param n the zero-based-index of the queried ugly number
-     * @exception IllegalArgumentException n is negative
-     * @return the n-th ugly number (starting from index 0)
+     * Returns the n-th ugly number (zero-based index; index 0 returns 1).
+     *
+     * @param n zero-based index; must be non-negative
+     * @return the n-th ugly number
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code n} is negative
      */
-    public Long get(final int n) {
+    public long get(final int n) {
         if (n < 0) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("n must be non-negative.");
         }
+        return cache.get(n);
+    }
 
-        while (uglyNumbers.size() <= n) {
-            addUglyNumber();
+    // -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+    // Private factory helper
+    // -------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+    private static List buildCursors(final int[] baseFactors) {
+        List cursors = new ArrayList<>(baseFactors.length);
+        for (int factor : baseFactors) {
+            cursors.add(new BaseFactorCursor(factor));
         }
+        return Collections.unmodifiableList(cursors);
+    }
+
+    // =========================================================================
+    // SRP helper 1 — tracks one base factor and its current index in the cache
+    // =========================================================================
 
-        return uglyNumbers.get(n);
+    /**
+     * Encapsulates a single base factor and a pointer into the ugly-number sequence.
+     * Knows how to compute its next candidate and advance its pointer.
+     */
+    static final class BaseFactorCursor {
+
+        private final int factor;
+        private int index; // points to the ugly number this cursor will multiply next
+
+        BaseFactorCursor(final int factor) {
+            this.factor = factor;
+            this.index = 0;
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Computes the candidate produced by this cursor: factor × uglyNumbers[index].
+         *
+         * @param uglyNumbers the current list of computed ugly numbers
+         * @return the candidate value
+         */
+        long candidate(final List uglyNumbers) {
+            return (long) factor * uglyNumbers.get(index);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Advances the internal pointer if the supplied value equals this cursor's
+         * current candidate, ensuring no duplicate ugly number is produced.
+         *
+         * @param lastAdded the value most recently appended to the ugly-number sequence
+         * @param uglyNumbers the current list of computed ugly numbers
+         */
+        void advanceIfMatch(final long lastAdded, final List uglyNumbers) {
+            if (candidate(uglyNumbers) == lastAdded) {
+                index++;
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    private void addUglyNumber() {
-        uglyNumbers.add(computeMinimalCandidate());
-        updatePositions();
+    // =========================================================================
+    // SRP helper 2 — strategy abstraction for picking the next ugly number
+    // =========================================================================
+
+    /**
+     * Strategy for selecting the next ugly number from a set of cursors.
+     * Implement this interface to swap in alternative selection algorithms
+     * (e.g. a heap-based selector) without touching {@link UglyNumberCache}.
+     */
+    interface CandidateSelector {
+        /**
+         * @param cursors     current cursor state
+         * @param uglyNumbers accumulated ugly numbers so far
+         * @return the smallest candidate across all cursors
+         */
+        long selectNext(List cursors, List uglyNumbers);
     }
 
-    private void updatePositions() {
-        final var lastUglyNumber = uglyNumbers.get(uglyNumbers.size() - 1);
-        for (var entry : positions) {
-            if (computeCandidate(entry) == lastUglyNumber) {
-                entry.setValue(entry.getValue() + 1);
+    // =========================================================================
+    // OCP — concrete selector; extend by providing a different CandidateSelector
+    // =========================================================================
+
+    /**
+     * Default {@link CandidateSelector} that performs a linear scan to find the
+     * minimum candidate. O(k) per step, where k is the number of base factors.
+     */
+    static final class MinimalCandidateSelector implements CandidateSelector {
+
+        @Override
+        public long selectNext(final List cursors,
+                               final List uglyNumbers) {
+            long minimum = Long.MAX_VALUE;
+            for (BaseFactorCursor cursor : cursors) {
+                minimum = Math.min(minimum, cursor.candidate(uglyNumbers));
             }
+            return minimum;
         }
     }
 
-    private long computeCandidate(final Map.Entry entry) {
-        return entry.getKey() * uglyNumbers.get(entry.getValue());
-    }
+    // =========================================================================
+    // SRP helper 3 — owns the cached sequence and the generation loop
+    // =========================================================================
+
+    /**
+     * Maintains the lazily-grown list of ugly numbers and delegates candidate
+     * selection to the injected {@link CandidateSelector}.
+     *
+     * 
Responsibilities: caching, growth, and cursor synchronisation only.
+     * It does not know how to pick the next value; that belongs to the selector.
+     */
+    static final class UglyNumberCache {
 
-    private long computeMinimalCandidate() {
-        long res = Long.MAX_VALUE;
-        for (final var entry : positions) {
-            res = Math.min(res, computeCandidate(entry));
+        private final List uglyNumbers = new ArrayList<>();
+        private final List cursors;
+        private final CandidateSelector selector;
+
+        UglyNumberCache(final List cursors,
+                        final CandidateSelector selector) {
+            this.cursors = cursors;
+            this.selector = selector;
+            uglyNumbers.add(1L); // 1 is always the first ugly number
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Returns the n-th ugly number, growing the cache as needed.
+         */
+        long get(final int n) {
+            while (uglyNumbers.size() <= n) {
+                growByOne();
+            }
+            return uglyNumbers.get(n);
+        }
+
+        private void growByOne() {
+            long next = selector.selectNext(cursors, uglyNumbers);
+            uglyNumbers.add(next);
+            advanceMatchingCursors(next);
+        }
+
+        /**
+         * Advances every cursor whose candidate equals the value just appended,
+         * which prevents duplicates in the sequence.
+         */
+        private void advanceMatchingCursors(final long justAdded) {
+            for (BaseFactorCursor cursor : cursors) {
+                cursor.advanceIfMatch(justAdded, uglyNumbers);
+            }
         }
-        return res;
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java
index 9a9d4450cb98..5a8bffcf8480 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PascalTriangle.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ private PascalTriangle() {
      *arises in probability theory, combinatorics, and algebra. In much of the Western world, it is
      *named after the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, although other mathematicians studied it
      *centuries before him in India, Persia, China, Germany, and Italy.
-     *
+     * 

      * The rows of Pascal's triangle are conventionally enumerated starting with row n=0 at the top
      *(the 0th row). The entries in each row are numbered from the left beginning with k=0 and are
      *usually staggered relative to the numbers in the adjacent rows. The triangle may be
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ private PascalTriangle() {
      *1 and 3 in the third row are added to produce the number 4 in the fourth row. *
      *
      *

-     *     link:-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle
+     *     li...ngle
      *
      * 

      *     Example:-
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java
index 4104c6238580..1b6df9f2e93f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectCube.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)
+ * ...
  */
 public final class PerfectCube {
     private PerfectCube() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java
index f299d08e5d27..3b101a3db035 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectNumber.java
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
  * sum of its positive divisors, excluding the number itself. For instance, 6
  * has divisors 1, 2 and 3 (excluding itself), and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6, so 6 is a
  * perfect number.
- *
- * link:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_number
+ * 

+ * l...mber
  */
 public final class PerfectNumber {
     private PerfectNumber() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java
index aec43062121a..9e7c314bb3be 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerfectSquare.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_square
+ * ...
  */
 public final class PerfectSquare {
     private PerfectSquare() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerrinNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerrinNumber.java
index cee45a1c5538..563a9ec592cc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerrinNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PerrinNumber.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
  * The Perrin Sequence is a sequence of integers defined by the recurrence relation:
  * P(n) = P(n-2) + P(n-3) with initial values P(0) = 3, P(1) = 0, P(2) = 2.
  * Example: 3, 0, 2, 3, 2, 5, 5, 7, 10, 12, 17, 22, 29, 39, 51...
- *
+ * 

  * Note: The Perrin Sequence uses the same recurrence relation as the Padovan Sequence
  * but has different initial values.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java
index 1be945d7ef24..4b4e5018c002 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PiApproximation.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Implementation to calculate an estimate of the number π (Pi).
- *
+ * 

  * We take a random point P with coordinates (x, y) such that 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
  * If x² + y² ≤ 1, then the point is inside the quarter disk of radius 1,
  * else the point is outside. We know that the probability of the point being
@@ -25,8 +25,8 @@ private PiApproximation() {
      * where 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.
      */
     static class Point {
-        double x;
-        double y;
+        final double x;
+        final double y;
 
         Point(double x, double y) {
             this.x = x;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfFour.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfFour.java
index e5fe6255821b..4d8b535b2f72 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfFour.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerOfFour.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
  * A power of four is a number that can be expressed as 4^n where n is a non-negative integer.
  * This class provides a method to determine if a given integer is a power of four using bit manipulation.
  *
- * @author krishna-medapati (https://github.com/krishna-medapati)
+ * @author krishna-medapati (...)
  */
 public final class PowerOfFour {
     private PowerOfFour() {
@@ -13,12 +13,12 @@ private PowerOfFour() {
 
     /**
      * Checks if the given integer is a power of four.
-     *
+     * 

      * A number is considered a power of four if:
      * 1. It is greater than zero
      * 2. It has exactly one '1' bit in its binary representation (power of two)
      * 3. The '1' bit is at an even position (0, 2, 4, 6, ...)
-     *
+     * 

      * The method uses the mask 0x55555555 (binary: 01010101010101010101010101010101)
      * to check if the set bit is at an even position.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java
index 93c8252ab929..2618957311a7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursion.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * calculate Power using Recursion
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 public final class PowerUsingRecursion {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java
index debe3a214a32..489ce82417e3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/Prime/MillerRabinPrimalityCheck.java
@@ -9,8 +9,8 @@ private MillerRabinPrimalityCheck() {
     /**
      * Check whether the given number is prime or not
      * MillerRabin algorithm is probabilistic. There is also an altered version which is deterministic.
-     * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Rabin_primality_test
-     * https://cp-algorithms.com/algebra/primality_tests.html
+     * ...
+     * ...
      *
      * @param n Whole number which is tested on primality
      * @param k Number of iterations
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java
index 2780b113d904..6c49f90e5103 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PythagoreanTriple.java
@@ -4,12 +4,12 @@
  * Utility class to check if three integers form a Pythagorean triple.
  * A Pythagorean triple consists of three positive integers a, b, and c,
  * such that a² + b² = c².
- *
+ * 

  * Common examples:
  * - (3, 4, 5)
  * - (5, 12, 13)
- *
- * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_triple
+ * 

+ * Refhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_triple
  */
 public final class PythagoreanTriple {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java
index cd654c5dc023..126b812a173f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/QuadraticEquationSolver.java
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
  * This class represents a complex number which has real and imaginary part
  */
 class ComplexNumber {
-    Double real;
-    Double imaginary;
+    final Double real;
+    final Double imaginary;
 
     ComplexNumber(double real, double imaginary) {
         this.real = real;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java
index e5a2d3b89085..8ad4cb79f217 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SecondMinMax.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ public final class SecondMinMax {
      * Utility class for finding second maximum or minimum based on BiPredicate
      * @exception IllegalArgumentException => if input array is of length less than 2 also if all elements are same
      * @return the second minimum / maximum value from the input array
-     * @author Bharath Sanjeevi ( https://github.com/BharathSanjeeviT )
+     * @author Bharath Sanjeevi ( ... )
      */
 
     private SecondMinMax() {
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ private static int secondBest(final int[] arr, final int initialVal, final BiPre
      * @param arr the input array
      * @exception IllegalArgumentException => if input array is of length less than 2 also if all elements are same
      * @return the second minimum / maximum value from the input array
-     * @author Bharath Sanjeevi ( https://github.com/BharathSanjeeviT )
+     * @author Bharath Sanjeevi ( ... )
      */
 
     public static int findSecondMin(final int[] arr) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java
index 780dd81dac7c..8e91e2b4a97b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfAtkin.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 /**
  * Implementation of the Sieve of Atkin, an optimized algorithm to generate
  * all prime numbers up to a given limit.
- *
+ * 

  * The Sieve of Atkin uses quadratic forms and modular arithmetic to identify
  * prime candidates, then eliminates multiples of squares. It is more efficient
  * than the Sieve of Eratosthenes for large limits.
@@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ public static List generatePrimes(int limit) {
 
     /**
      * Marks numbers in the sieve as prime candidates based on quadratic residues.
-     *
+     * 

      * This method iterates over all x and y up to sqrt(limit) and applies
      * the three quadratic forms used in the Sieve of Atkin. Numbers satisfying
      * the modulo conditions are toggled in the sieve array.
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ private static void applyQuadraticForm(int n, int limit, boolean[] sieve, int mo
 
     /**
      * Toggles the sieve entry for a number if it satisfies the modulo condition and an additional boolean condition.
-     *
+     * 

      * This version is used for the quadratic form 3*x*x - y*y, which requires x > y.
      *
      * @param n the number to check
@@ -121,7 +121,7 @@ private static void applyQuadraticForm(int n, int limit, boolean[] sieve, int mo
 
     /**
      * Eliminates numbers that are multiples of squares from the sieve.
-     *
+     * 

      * All numbers that are multiples of i*i (where i is marked as prime) are
      * marked non-prime to finalize the sieve. This ensures only actual primes remain.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
index 5a15c4201a15..18f9d6140345 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenes.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 /**
  * Sieve of Eratosthenes Algorithm
  * An efficient algorithm to find all prime numbers up to a given limit.
- *
+ * 

  * Algorithm:
  * 1. Create a boolean array of size n+1, initially all true
  * 2. Mark 0 and 1 as not prime
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
  *    - If i is still marked as prime
  *    - Mark all multiples of i (starting from i²) as not prime
  * 4. Collect all numbers still marked as prime
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n log log n)
  * Space Complexity: O(n)
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SmithNumber.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SmithNumber.java
index c06e0023d9bb..57057b5a8187 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SmithNumber.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SmithNumber.java
@@ -5,11 +5,11 @@
 /**
  * In number theory, a smith number  is a composite number for which, in a given number base,
  *  the sum of its digits is equal to the sum of the digits in its prime factorization in the same base.
- *
+ * 

  * For example, in base 10, 378 = 21 X 33 X 71 is a Smith number since 3 + 7 + 8 = 2 X 1 + 3 X 3 + 7 X 1,
  * and 22 = 21 X 111 is a Smith number, because 2 + 2 = 2 X 1 + (1 + 1) X 1.
- *
- * Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_number
+ * 

+ Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_number
  */
 public final class SmithNumber {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java
index caa1abfc3203..75147a854f01 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest.java
@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@
  * This class implements the Solovay-Strassen primality test,
  * which is a probabilistic algorithm to determine whether a number is prime.
  * The algorithm is based on properties of the Jacobi symbol and modular exponentiation.
- *
- * For more information, go to {@link https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solovay%E2%80%93Strassen_primality_test}
+ /**
+ * For more information, go to Solovay–Strassen Primality Test
  */
 final class SolovayStrassenPrimalityTest {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java
index 80d185c93785..8a09603d0e33 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.java
@@ -1,33 +1,17 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.maths;
 
-/*
- *To learn about the method, visit the link below :
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method
- *
- * To obtain the square root, no built-in functions should be used
- *
- * The formula to calculate the root is : root = 0.5(x + n/x),
- * here, n is the no. whose square root has to be calculated and
- * x has to be guessed such that, the calculation should result into
- * the square root of n.
- * And the root will be obtained when the error < 0.5 or the precision value can also
- * be changed according to the user preference.
- */
-
-public final class SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod {
-    private SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod() {
-    }
-
-    public static double squareRoot(int n) {
-        double x = n; // initially taking a guess that x = n.
-        double root = 0.5 * (x + n / x); // applying Newton-Raphson Method.
-
-        while (Math.abs(root - x) > 0.0000001) { // root - x = error and error < 0.0000001, 0.0000001
-                                                 // is the precision value taken over here.
-            x = root; // decreasing the value of x to root, i.e. decreasing the guess.
-            root = 0.5 * (x + n / x);
+    public final class SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod {
+        private SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod() {
+        }
+        public static double squareRoot(int n) {
+            double x = n; // initially taking a guess that x = n.
+            double root = 0.5 * (x + n / x); // applying Newton-Raphson Method.
+            while (Math.abs(root - x) > 0.0000001) { // root - x = error and error < 0.0000001, 0.0000001
+                // is the precision value taken over here.
+                x = root; // decreasing the value of x to root, i.e. decreasing the guess.
+                root = 0.5 * (x + n / x);
+            }
+            return root;
         }
-
-        return root;
     }
-}
+
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTest.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTest.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..5e120acfffba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTest.java
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.maths;
+
+/*
+ *To learn about the method, visit the link below :
+ * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method
+ *
+ * To obtain the square root, no built-in functions should be used
+ *
+ * The formula to calculate the root is : root = 0.5(x + n/x),
+ * here, n is the no. whose square root has to be calculated and
+ * x has to be guessed such that, the calculation should result into
+ * the square root of n.
+ * And the root will be obtained when the error < 0.5 or the precision value can also
+ * be changed according to the user preference.
+ */
+
+public final class SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTest {
+    private SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTest() {
+    }
+
+    public static double squareRoot(int n) {
+        double x = n; // initially taking a guess that x = n.
+        double root = 0.5 * (x + n / x); // applying Newton-Raphson Method.
+
+        while (Math.abs(root - x) > 0.0000001) { // root - x = error and error < 0.0000001, 0.0000001
+                                                 // is the precision value taken over here.
+            x = root; // decreasing the value of x to root, i.e. decreasing the guess.
+            root = 0.5 * (x + n / x);
+        }
+
+        return root;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java
index 315f0d3a7d28..c4899a23eba1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfArithmeticSeries.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  * difference of 2.
  *
  * 

- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_progression
+ * Wikipedia: ...
  */
 public final class SumOfArithmeticSeries {
     private SumOfArithmeticSeries() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java
index c0a1e782659a..37b9a6429650 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumOfOddNumbers.java
@@ -2,8 +2,8 @@
 
 /**
  * This program calculates the sum of the first n odd numbers.
- *
- * https://www.cuemath.com/algebra/sum-of-odd-numbers/
+ * 
* https://www.cuemath.com/algebra/sum-of-odd-numbers/
  */
 
 public final class SumOfOddNumbers {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java
index 5369182a0a94..7597a8a727bc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperators.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ public class SumWithoutArithmeticOperators {
     /**
      * Calculate the sum of two numbers a and b without using any arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /).
      * All the integers associated are unsigned 32-bit integers
-     *https://stackoverflow.com/questions/365522/what-is-the-best-way-to-add-two-numbers-without-using-the-operator
+     *...
      *@param a - It is the first number
      *@param b - It is the second number
      *@return returns an integer which is the sum of the first and second number
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java
index 877ef4227afc..d708c2792d74 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/TrinomialTriangle.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * The trinomial triangle is a variation of Pascal’s triangle. The difference
  * between the two is that an entry in the trinomial triangle is the sum of the
  * three (rather than the two in Pasacal’s triangle) entries above it
- *
+ * 

  * Example Input: n = 4 Output 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 3 6 7 6 3 1
  */
 public final class TrinomialTriangle {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java
index e2769744bcda..439108d815c6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/VectorCrossProduct.java
@@ -18,21 +18,21 @@
  * it's value expressed as a number. Let the direction ratios of the first
  * vector, P be: a, b, c Let the direction ratios of the second vector, Q be: x,
  * y, z Therefore the calculation for the cross product can be arranged as:
- *
+ * 

  * ``` P x Q: 1	1	1 a	b	c x	y	z ```
- *
+ * 

  * The direction ratios (DR) are calculated as follows: 1st DR, J: (b * z) - (c
  * * y) 2nd DR, A: -((a * z) - (c * x)) 3rd DR, N: (a * y) - (b * x)
- *
+ * 

  * Therefore, the direction ratios of the cross product are: J, A, N The
  * following Java Program calculates the direction ratios of the cross products
  * of two vector. The program uses a function, cross() for doing so. The
  * direction ratios for the first and the second vector has to be passed one by
  * one separated by a space character.
- *
+ * 

  * Magnitude of a vector is the square root of the sum of the squares of the
  * direction ratios.
- *
+ * 

  *
  * For maintaining filename consistency, Vector class has been termed as
  * VectorCrossProduct
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java
index 13e795a91297..d3f3edf21af4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/InverseOfMatrix.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * This class provides methods to compute the inverse of a square matrix
  * using Gaussian elimination. For more details, refer to:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible_matrix
+ * ...
  */
 public final class InverseOfMatrix {
     private InverseOfMatrix() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/LUDecomposition.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/LUDecomposition.java
index e41aaa201338..f42d51adc6c7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/LUDecomposition.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/LUDecomposition.java
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@
  * where:
  * - l is a lower triangular matrix with 1s on its diagonal
  * - u is an upper triangular matrix
- *
- * Reference:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lu_decomposition
+ * 

+ * Reference:* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lu_decomposition
  */
 public final class LUDecomposition {
 
@@ -21,8 +21,8 @@ private LUDecomposition() {
      * A helper class to store both l and u matrices
      */
     public static class LU {
-        double[][] l;
-        double[][] u;
+        final double[][] l;
+        final double[][] u;
 
         LU(double[][] l, double[][] u) {
             this.l = l;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java
index 6467a438577b..627313ff3e5b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixMultiplication.java
@@ -8,8 +8,8 @@
  * matrix multiplication.
  *
  * 
For more details:
- * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/java/java-program-to-multiply-two-matrices-of-any-size/
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_multiplication
+ * ...
+ * ...
  *
  * 
Time Complexity: O(n^3) – where n is the dimension of the matrices
  * (assuming square matrices for simplicity).
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java
index 6692b6c37c60..336b16cee264 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MatrixRank.java
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ public static int computeRank(double[][] matrix) {
     }
 
     private static boolean isZero(double value) {
-        return Math.abs(value) < EPSILON;
+        return !(Math.abs(value) < EPSILON);
     }
 
     private static double[][] deepCopy(double[][] matrix) {
@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ private static double[][] deepCopy(double[][] matrix) {
     private static int findPivotRow(double[][] matrix, boolean[] rowMarked, int colIndex) {
         int numRows = matrix.length;
         for (int pivotRow = 0; pivotRow < numRows; ++pivotRow) {
-            if (!rowMarked[pivotRow] && !isZero(matrix[pivotRow][colIndex])) {
+            if (!rowMarked[pivotRow] && isZero(matrix[pivotRow][colIndex])) {
                 return pivotRow;
             }
         }
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ private static void eliminateRows(double[][] matrix, int pivotRow, int colIndex)
         int numRows = matrix.length;
         int numColumns = matrix[0].length;
         for (int otherRow = 0; otherRow < numRows; ++otherRow) {
-            if (otherRow != pivotRow && !isZero(matrix[otherRow][colIndex])) {
+            if (otherRow != pivotRow && isZero(matrix[otherRow][colIndex])) {
                 for (int col2 = colIndex + 1; col2 < numColumns; ++col2) {
                     matrix[otherRow][col2] -= matrix[pivotRow][col2] * matrix[otherRow][colIndex];
                 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java
index 1ec977af07c6..dea97d5aeb7d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/MedianOfMatrix.java
@@ -5,8 +5,8 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * Median of Matrix (https://medium.com/@vaibhav.yadav8101/median-in-a-row-wise-sorted-matrix-901737f3e116)
- * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * Median of Matrix (...)
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 public final class MedianOfMatrix {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java
index 4ae5970a9574..f729fef24e1d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
  * clockwise.
  * 

  *
- * @author Sadiul Hakim (https://github.com/sadiul-hakim)
+ * @author Sadiul Hakim (...)
  */
 public class PrintAMatrixInSpiralOrder {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/StochasticMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/StochasticMatrix.java
index 8b071113f9cc..28b9906ff799 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/StochasticMatrix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/StochasticMatrix.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
  * Utility class to check whether a matrix is stochastic.
  * A matrix is stochastic if all its elements are non-negative
  * and the sum of each row or column is equal to 1.
- *Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_matrix
+ *Reference: ...
  */
 public final class StochasticMatrix {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
index 85852713b9ba..449e8038c5da 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/matrix/matrixexponentiation/Fibonacci.java
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 import java.math.BigDecimal;
 
 /**
- * @author Anirudh Buvanesh (https://github.com/anirudhb11) For more information
- * see https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/matrix-exponentiation/
+ * @author Anirudh Buvanesh (...) For more information
+ * see ...
  *
  */
 public final class Fibonacci {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java
index d98b2ee2dd03..5d9bb49770d3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MapReduce.java
@@ -13,8 +13,8 @@
  * It consists of two main phases:
  * - Map: the input data is split into smaller chunks and processed in parallel.
  * - Reduce: the results from the Map phase are aggregated to produce the final output.
- *
- * See also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce
+ * 

+ * See alhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce
  */
 public final class MapReduce {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java
index 95f86f63f720..95418f90bbcd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArray.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * A generic abstract class to compute the median of a dynamically growing stream of numbers.
  *
  * @param  the number type, must extend Number and be Comparable
- *
+ * 

  * Usage:
  * Extend this class and implement {@code calculateAverage(T a, T b)} to define how averaging is done.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java
index c81476eaec32..691f305b5ee5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/PalindromeSinglyLinkedList.java
@@ -6,9 +6,9 @@
  * A simple way of knowing if a singly linked list is palindrome is to push all
  * the values into a Stack and then compare the list to popped vales from the
  * Stack.
- *
- * See more:
- * https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/function-to-check-if-a-singly-linked-list-is-palindrome/
+ * 

+ * See more:* https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/function-to-check-if-a-singly-linked-list-is-palindrome/
  */
 @SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
 public final class PalindromeSinglyLinkedList {
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ public static boolean isPalindromeOptimised(Node head) {
         return true;
     }
     static class Node {
-        int val;
+        final int val;
         Node next;
         Node(int val) {
             this.val = val;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java
index e07c8df771d3..76f9ee238eb6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ShuffleArray.java
@@ -11,10 +11,10 @@
  * Best-case performance O(n)
  * Average performance O(n)
  * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
- *
+ * 

  * This class provides a static method to shuffle an array in place.
  *
- * @author Rashi Dashore (https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
+ * @author Rashi Dasho(https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
  */
 public final class ShuffleArray {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java
index 4a919e0e55c6..a2f38f6598dd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/Sparsity.java
@@ -4,10 +4,10 @@
  * Utility class for calculating the sparsity of a matrix.
  * A matrix is considered sparse if a large proportion of its elements are zero.
  * Typically, if more than 2/3 of the elements are zero, the matrix is considered sparse.
- *
+ * 

  * Sparsity is defined as:
  * sparsity = (number of zero elements) / (total number of elements)
- *
+ * 

  * This can lead to significant computational optimizations.
  */
 public final class Sparsity {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java
index 8ef10758ef80..4a78a3643666 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/ThreeSumProblem.java
@@ -35,8 +35,8 @@ public List> bruteForce(int[] nums, int target) {
     public List> twoPointer(int[] nums, int target) {
         Arrays.sort(nums);
         List> arr = new ArrayList>();
-        int start = 0;
-        int end = 0;
+        int start;
+        int end;
         int i = 0;
         while (i < nums.length - 1) {
             start = i + 1;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java
index 2fc4ed09a792..063d448fd8c3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblem.java
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ private TwoSumProblem() {
      * @param values An array of integers.
      * @param target The target is the sum that we are trying to find using two numbers from the given array.
      * @return A pair or indexes such that sum of values at these indexes equals to the target
-     * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+     * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
      */
 
     public static Optional> twoSum(final int[] values, final int target) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java
index 125edadb6e73..4cd1a915a758 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/ArrayRightRotation.java
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
  * Provides a method to perform a right rotation on an array.
  * A left rotation operation shifts each element of the array
  * by a specified number of positions to the right.
- *
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_rotation *
+ * 
* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_rotation *
  */
 public final class ArrayRightRotation {
     private ArrayRightRotation() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java
index 5abf633a1c12..819391d62909 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithm.java
@@ -1,164 +1,126 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
-
-import java.util.Scanner;
+import java.util.ArrayList;
+import java.util.Arrays;
+import java.util.List;
 
 /**
  * This file contains an implementation of BANKER'S ALGORITHM Wikipedia:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banker%27s_algorithm
- *
+ * ...
+ * 

  * The algorithm for finding out whether or not a system is in a safe state can
  * be described as follows: 1. Let Work and Finish be vectors of length ‘m’ and
  * ‘n’ respectively. Initialize: Work= Available Finish [i]=false; for
  * i=1,2,……,n 2. Find an i such that both a) Finish [i]=false b) Need_i<=work
- *
+ * 

  * if no such i exists goto step (4) 3. Work=Work + Allocation_i Finish[i]= true
  * goto step(2) 4. If Finish[i]=true for all i, then the system is in safe
  * state.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n*n*m) Space Complexity: O(n*m) where n = number of
  * processes and m = number of resources.
  *
- * @author AMRITESH ANAND (https://github.com/amritesh19)
+ * @author AMRIANAND (https://github.com/amritesh19)
  */
 public final class BankersAlgorithm {
     private BankersAlgorithm() {
     }
 
     /**
-     * This method finds the need of each process
-     */
-    static void calculateNeed(int[][] needArray, int[][] maxArray, int[][] allocationArray, int totalProcess, int totalResources) {
-        for (int i = 0; i < totalProcess; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < totalResources; j++) {
-                needArray[i][j] = maxArray[i][j] - allocationArray[i][j];
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * This method find the system is in safe state or not
-     *
-     * @param processes[] int array of processes (0...n-1), size = n
-     * @param availableArray[] int array of number of instances of each
-     * resource, size = m
-     * @param maxArray[][] int matrix(2-D array) of maximum demand of each
-     * process in a system, size = n*m
-     * @param allocationArray[][] int matrix(2-D array) of the number of
-     * resources of each type currently allocated to each process, size = n*m
-     * @param totalProcess number of total processes, n
-     * @param totalResources number of total resources, m
+     * Checks whether the system is in a safe state.
      *
-     * @return boolean if the system is in safe state or not
+     * @param available  available instances of each resource
+     * @param max        maximum demand of each process
+     * @param allocation currently allocated resources to each process
+     * @return SafetyResult indicating safe state and the safe sequence (if any)
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if input is invalid
      */
-    static boolean checkSafeSystem(int[] processes, int[] availableArray, int[][] maxArray, int[][] allocationArray, int totalProcess, int totalResources) {
-        int[][] needArray = new int[totalProcess][totalResources];
-
-        calculateNeed(needArray, maxArray, allocationArray, totalProcess, totalResources);
-
-        boolean[] finishProcesses = new boolean[totalProcess];
-
-        int[] safeSequenceArray = new int[totalProcess];
-
-        int[] workArray = new int[totalResources];
-        System.arraycopy(availableArray, 0, workArray, 0, totalResources);
-
-        int count = 0;
-
-        // While all processes are not finished or system is not in safe state.
-        while (count < totalProcess) {
-            boolean foundSafeSystem = false;
-            for (int m = 0; m < totalProcess; m++) {
-                if (!finishProcesses[m]) {
-                    int j;
-
-                    for (j = 0; j < totalResources; j++) {
-                        if (needArray[m][j] > workArray[j]) {
+    public static SafetyResult isSafe(int[] available, int[][] max, int[][] allocation) {
+        validateInput(available, max, allocation);
+        int totalProcesses = allocation.length;
+        int totalResources = available.length;
+
+        int[][] need = calculateNeed(max, allocation);
+
+        boolean[] finished = new boolean[totalProcesses];
+        int[] work = Arrays.copyOf(available, totalResources);
+        List safeSequence = new ArrayList<>();
+        // While not all processes are finished, look for a process whose needs can be satisfied
+        while (safeSequence.size() < totalProcesses) {
+            boolean found = false;
+            for (int p = 0; p < totalProcesses; p++) {
+                if (!finished[p]) {
+                    boolean canAllocate = true;
+                    for (int r = 0; r < totalResources; r++) {
+                        if (need[p][r] > work[r]) {
+                            canAllocate = false;
                             break;
                         }
                     }
-
-                    if (j == totalResources) {
-                        for (int k = 0; k < totalResources; k++) {
-                            workArray[k] += allocationArray[m][k];
+                    if (canAllocate) {
+                        // Process can finish; release its allocated resources
+                        for (int r = 0; r < totalResources; r++) {
+                            work[r] += allocation[p][r];
                         }
-
-                        safeSequenceArray[count++] = m;
-
-                        finishProcesses[m] = true;
-
-                        foundSafeSystem = true;
+                        finished[p] = true;
+                        safeSequence.add(p);
+                        found = true;
                     }
                 }
             }
-
-            // If we could not find a next process in safe sequence.
-            if (!foundSafeSystem) {
-                System.out.print("The system is not in the safe state because lack of resources");
-                return false;
+            if (!found) {
+                return new SafetyResult(false, List.of(),
+                        "The system is not in a safe state because of lack of resources.");
             }
         }
+        return new SafetyResult(true, safeSequence, "The system is in a safe state.");
+    }
 
-        System.out.print("The system is in safe sequence and the sequence is as follows: ");
-        for (int i = 0; i < totalProcess; i++) {
-            System.out.print("P" + safeSequenceArray[i] + " ");
+    private static int[][] calculateNeed(int[][] max, int[][] allocation) {
+        int processes = max.length;
+        int resources = max[0].length;
+        int[][] need = new int[processes][resources];
+        for (int i = 0; i < processes; i++) {
+            for (int j = 0; j < resources; j++) {
+                need[i][j] = max[i][j] - allocation[i][j];
+            }
         }
-
-        return true;
+        return need;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * This is main method of Banker's Algorithm
-     */
-    public static void main(String[] args) {
-        int numberOfProcesses;
-        int numberOfResources;
-
-        Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in);
-
-        System.out.println("Enter total number of processes");
-        numberOfProcesses = sc.nextInt();
-
-        System.out.println("Enter total number of resources");
-        numberOfResources = sc.nextInt();
-
-        int[] processes = new int[numberOfProcesses];
-        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfProcesses; i++) {
-            processes[i] = i;
+    private static void validateInput(int[] available, int[][] max, int[][] allocation) {
+        if (available == null || max == null || allocation == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Arguments must not be null.");
         }
-
-        System.out.println("--Enter the availability of--");
-
-        int[] availableArray = new int[numberOfResources];
-        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfResources; i++) {
-            System.out.println("resource " + i + ": ");
-            availableArray[i] = sc.nextInt();
+        int processes = allocation.length;
+        if (max.length != processes) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("max and allocation must have the same number of processes.");
         }
-
-        System.out.println("--Enter the maximum matrix--");
-
-        int[][] maxArray = new int[numberOfProcesses][numberOfResources];
-        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfProcesses; i++) {
-            System.out.println("For process " + i + ": ");
-            for (int j = 0; j < numberOfResources; j++) {
-                System.out.println("Enter the maximum instances of resource " + j);
-                maxArray[i][j] = sc.nextInt();
+        if (processes == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("At least one process is required.");
+        }
+        int resources = available.length;
+        if (resources == 0) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("At least one resource is required.");
+        }
+        for (int i = 0; i < processes; i++) {
+            if (max[i].length != resources || allocation[i].length != resources) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Resource count mismatch in max/allocation for process " + i);
+            }
+            for (int j = 0; j < resources; j++) {
+                if (max[i][j] < 0 || allocation[i][j] < 0) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException("Negative values not allowed.");
+                }
+                if (allocation[i][j] > max[i][j]) {
+                    throw new IllegalArgumentException(
+                            "Process " + i + " has allocated more than maximum for resource " + j);
+                }
             }
         }
-
-        System.out.println("--Enter the allocation matrix--");
-
-        int[][] allocationArray = new int[numberOfProcesses][numberOfResources];
-        for (int i = 0; i < numberOfProcesses; i++) {
-            System.out.println("For process " + i + ": ");
-            for (int j = 0; j < numberOfResources; j++) {
-                System.out.println("Allocated instances of resource " + j);
-                allocationArray[i][j] = sc.nextInt();
+        for(int j = 0; j < resources; j++) {
+            if (available[j] < 0) {
+                throw new IllegalArgumentException("Available resources cannot be negative.");
             }
         }
-
-        checkSafeSystem(processes, availableArray, maxArray, allocationArray, numberOfProcesses, numberOfResources);
-
-        sc.close();
     }
 }
 /*
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithmDemo.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithmDemo.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f9a4eb553cdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BankersAlgorithmDemo.java
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+import java.util.Scanner;
+
+public class BankersAlgorithmDemo {
+    private BankersAlgorithmDemo() {}
+
+    public static void main(String[] args) {
+        try (Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in)) {
+            System.out.print("Enter total number of processes: ");
+            int numProcesses = scanner.nextInt();
+
+            System.out.print("Enter total number of resources: ");
+            int numResources = scanner.nextInt();
+
+            // Available resources
+            int[] available = new int[numResources];
+            System.out.println("Enter available instances of each resource:");
+            for (int j = 0; j < numResources; j++) {
+                System.out.print("Resource " + j + ": ");
+                available[j] = scanner.nextInt();
+            }
+
+            // Maximum matrix
+            int[][] max = new int[numProcesses][numResources];
+            System.out.println("Enter maximum demand matrix:");
+            for (int i = 0; i < numProcesses; i++) {
+                System.out.println("Process " + i + ":");
+                for (int j = 0; j < numResources; j++) {
+                    System.out.print("  Max of resource " + j + ": ");
+                    max[i][j] = scanner.nextInt();
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Allocation matrix
+            int[][] allocation = new int[numProcesses][numResources];
+            System.out.println("Enter allocation matrix:");
+            for (int i = 0; i < numProcesses; i++) {
+                System.out.println("Process " + i + ":");
+                for (int j = 0; j < numResources; j++) {
+                    System.out.print("  Allocated of resource " + j + ": ");
+                    allocation[i][j] = scanner.nextInt();
+                }
+            }
+
+            // Run algorithm and display result
+            SafetyResult result = BankersAlgorithm.isSafe(available, max, allocation);
+            System.out.println(result.getMessage());
+            if (result.isSafe()) {
+                System.out.print("Safe sequence: ");
+                for (int p : result.getSequence()) {
+                    System.out.print("P" + p + " ");
+                }
+                System.out.println();
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java
index 3fb97724b5ac..fc719997d649 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BoyerMoore.java
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@
  * Utility class implementing Boyer-Moore's Voting Algorithm to find the majority element
  * in an array. The majority element is defined as the element that appears more than n/2 times
  * in the array, where n is the length of the array.
- *
- * For more information on the algorithm, refer to:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_majority_vote_algorithm
+ * 

+ * For more information on the algorithm, refer to:* https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_majority_vote_algorithm
  */
 public final class BoyerMoore {
     private BoyerMoore() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java
index 180936ed46c1..0e6c256b49e1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRC32.java
@@ -28,6 +28,6 @@ public static int crc32(byte[] data) {
             }
         }
         crc32 = Integer.reverse(crc32); // result reflect
-        return crc32 ^ 0xFFFFFFFF; // final xor value
+        return ~crc32; // final xor value
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java
index 2d0be15e0a7b..71e7f4a03e9d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/CRCAlgorithm.java
@@ -18,17 +18,17 @@ public class CRCAlgorithm {
 
     private int wrongMessNotCaught;
 
-    private int messSize;
+    private final int messSize;
 
-    private double ber;
+    private final double ber;
 
     private boolean messageChanged;
 
     private ArrayList message;
 
-    private ArrayList p;
+    private final ArrayList p;
 
-    private Random randomGenerator;
+    private final Random randomGenerator;
 
     /**
      * The algorithm's main constructor. The most significant variables, used in
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java
index a379100a2f3b..02107406ce74 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Dijkstra.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
  *
  * 

  * Original source of code:
- * https://rosettacode.org/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm#Java Also most of the
+ * ... Also most of the
  * comments are from RosettaCode.
  */
 public final class Dijkstra {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java
index acf76ae3b192..a8cde026d2f0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/GaussLegendre.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Gauss Legendre Algorithm ref
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss–Legendre_algorithm
+ * ...–Legendre_algorithm
  *
  * @author AKS1996
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java
index 3f685f418a3d..6bbf420ca572 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/IterativeFloodFill.java
@@ -93,10 +93,6 @@ private static class Point {
      */
     private static boolean shouldSkipPixel(final int[][] image, final int x, final int y, final int oldColor) {
 
-        if (x < 0 || x >= image.length || y < 0 || y >= image[0].length || image[x][y] != oldColor) {
-            return true;
-        }
-
-        return false;
+        return x < 0 || x >= image.length || y < 0 || y >= image[0].length || image[x][y] != oldColor;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java
index 10986aabec4f..80e273664aee 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/KochSnowflake.java
@@ -20,9 +20,9 @@
  * three segments of equal length. 2. draw an equilateral triangle that has the
  * middle segment from step 1 as its base and points outward. 3. remove the line
  * segment that is the base of the triangle from step 2. (description adapted
- * from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koch_snowflake ) (for a more detailed
+ * from ... ) (for a more detailed
  * explanation and an implementation in the Processing language, see
- * https://natureofcode.com/book/chapter-8-fractals/
+ * ...
  * #84-the-koch-curve-and-the-arraylist-technique ).
  */
 public final class KochSnowflake {
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         try {
             ImageIO.write(image, "png", new File("KochSnowflake.png"));
         } catch (IOException e) {
-            e.printStackTrace();
+            throw new RuntimeException("Failed to save image", e);
         }
     }
 
@@ -120,7 +120,7 @@ public static BufferedImage getKochSnowflake(int imageWidth, int steps) {
      * Loops through each pair of adjacent vectors. Each line between two
      * adjacent vectors is divided into 4 segments by adding 3 additional
      * vectors in-between the original two vectors. The vector in the middle is
-     * constructed through a 60 degree rotation so it is bent outwards.
+     * constructed through a 60-degree rotation so it is bent outwards.
      *
      * @param vectors The vectors composing the shape to which the algorithm is
      * applied.
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ private static ArrayList iterationStep(List vectors) {
             newVectors.add(startVector.add(differenceVector.multiply(2)));
         }
 
-        newVectors.add(vectors.get(vectors.size() - 1));
+        newVectors.add(vectors.getLast());
         return newVectors;
     }
 
@@ -179,8 +179,8 @@ private static BufferedImage getImage(ArrayList vectors, int imageWidth
      */
     private static class Vector2 {
 
-        double x;
-        double y;
+        final double x;
+        final double y;
 
         Vector2(double x, double y) {
             this.x = x;
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ public Vector2 multiply(double scalar) {
         }
 
         /**
-         * Vector rotation (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_matrix)
+         * Vector rotation (see ...)
          *
          * @param angleInDegrees The angle by which to rotate the vector.
          * @return The rotated vector.
@@ -243,4 +243,4 @@ public Vector2 rotate(double angleInDegrees) {
             return new Vector2(x, y);
         }
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java
index b7db964c98d0..2b183465e65a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/LineSweep.java
@@ -7,13 +7,13 @@
  * The Line Sweep algorithm is used to solve range problems efficiently. It works by:
  * 1. Sorting a list of ranges by their start values in non-decreasing order.
  * 2. Sweeping through the number line (x-axis) while updating a count for each point based on the ranges.
- *
+ * 

  * An overlapping range is defined as:
  * - (StartA <= EndB) AND (EndA >= StartB)
- *
- * References:
- * - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweep_line_algorithm
- * - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws
+ * 

+ * Reference* - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweep_line_algorit* - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws
  */
 public final class LineSweep {
     private LineSweep() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java
index 600128a7725b..34aa2f3fa675 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Luhn.java
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ private record CreditCard(int[] digits) {
          */
         public static CreditCard fromString(String cardNumber) {
             Objects.requireNonNull(cardNumber);
-            String trimmedCardNumber = cardNumber.replaceAll(" ", "");
+            String trimmedCardNumber = cardNumber.replace(" ", "");
             if (trimmedCardNumber.length() != DIGITS_COUNT || !trimmedCardNumber.matches("\\d+")) {
                 throw new IllegalArgumentException("{" + cardNumber + "} - is not a card number");
             }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java
index 6d7588090ba8..7040f6612248 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/Mandelbrot.java
@@ -19,8 +19,8 @@
  * the Mandelbrot set exhibit an elaborate and infinitely complicated boundary
  * that reveals progressively ever-finer recursive detail at increasing
  * magnifications, making the boundary of the Mandelbrot set a fractal curve.
- * (description adapted from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandelbrot_set ) (see
- * also https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotting_algorithms_for_the_Mandelbrot_set
+ * (description adapted from ... ) (see
+ * also ...
  * )
  */
 public final class Mandelbrot {
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ public static void main(String[] args) {
         try {
             ImageIO.write(coloredImage, "png", new File("Mandelbrot.png"));
         } catch (IOException e) {
-            e.printStackTrace();
+            throw new RuntimeException("Failed to save image", e);
         }
     }
 
@@ -140,20 +140,14 @@ private static Color colorCodedColorMap(double distance) {
             int q = (int) (val * (1 - f * saturation));
             int t = (int) (val * (1 - (1 - f) * saturation));
 
-            switch (hi) {
-            case 0:
-                return new Color(v, t, p);
-            case 1:
-                return new Color(q, v, p);
-            case 2:
-                return new Color(p, v, t);
-            case 3:
-                return new Color(p, q, v);
-            case 4:
-                return new Color(t, p, v);
-            default:
-                return new Color(v, p, q);
-            }
+            return switch (hi) {
+                case 0 -> new Color(v, t, p);
+                case 1 -> new Color(q, v, p);
+                case 2 -> new Color(p, v, t);
+                case 3 -> new Color(p, q, v);
+                case 4 -> new Color(t, p, v);
+                default -> new Color(v, p, q);
+            };
         }
     }
 
@@ -163,7 +157,7 @@ private static Color colorCodedColorMap(double distance) {
      * of the Mandelbrot set do not diverge so their distance is 1.
      *
      * @param figureX The x-coordinate within the figure.
-     * @param figureX The y-coordinate within the figure.
+     * @param figureY The y-coordinate within the figure.
      * @param maxStep Maximum number of steps to check for divergent behavior.
      * @return The relative distance as the ratio of steps taken to maxStep.
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java
index dec813dd3213..9bfdc0d27f50 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK.java
@@ -6,14 +6,14 @@
 /**
  * Algorithm to find the maximum sum of a subarray of size K with all distinct
  * elements.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation uses a sliding window approach with a hash map to
  * efficiently
  * track element frequencies within the current window. The algorithm maintains
  * a window
  * of size K and slides it across the array, ensuring all elements in the window
  * are distinct.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n) where n is the length of the input array
  * Space Complexity: O(k) for storing elements in the hash map
  *
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@
  *      Algorithm
  * @see Sliding
  *      Window
- * @author Swarga-codes (https://github.com/Swarga-codes)
+ * @author Swarga(https://github.com/Swarga-codes)
  */
 public final class MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK {
     private MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK() {
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ private MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK() {
     /**
      * Finds the maximum sum of a subarray of size K consisting of distinct
      * elements.
-     *
+     * 

      * The algorithm uses a sliding window technique with a frequency map to track
      * the count of each element in the current window. A window is valid only if
      * all K elements are distinct (frequency map size equals K).
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java
index 40a5f6a7a767..966cd28a587b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MemoryManagementAlgorithms.java
@@ -61,8 +61,8 @@ private static int findMaxElement(int[] array) {
      * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
      * given process based on the best fit algorithm.
      *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @param blockSizes: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param processSize: the size of the process.
      * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
      * exists.
      */
@@ -119,8 +119,8 @@ class WorstFitCPU extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
      * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
      * given process based on the worst fit algorithm.
      *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @param blockSizes: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param processSize: the size of the process.
      * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
      * exists.
      */
@@ -177,8 +177,8 @@ class FirstFitCPU extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
      * Method to find the index of the memory block that is going to fit the
      * given process based on the first fit algorithm.
      *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @param blockSizes: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param processSize: the size of the process.
      * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
      * exists.
      */
@@ -233,8 +233,8 @@ class NextFit extends MemoryManagementAlgorithms {
      * if the search is interrupted in between, the new search is carried out from the last
      * location.
      *
-     * @param blocks: the array with the available memory blocks.
-     * @param process: the size of the process.
+     * @param blockSizes: the array with the available memory blocks.
+     * @param processSize: the size of the process.
      * @return the index of the block that fits, or -255 if no such block
      * exists.
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java
index 28dc980034f3..6fac35a188b3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MiniMaxAlgorithm.java
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@
  * GeeksforGeeks - Minimax Algorithm
  * 
  *
- * @author aitofi (https://github.com/aitorfi)
+ * @author aitofi (...)
  */
 public final class MiniMaxAlgorithm {
 
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ public MiniMaxAlgorithm() {
      *                                  2
      */
     public MiniMaxAlgorithm(int[] scores) {
-        if (!isPowerOfTwo(scores.length)) {
+        if (isPowerOfTwo(scores.length)) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("The number of scores must be a power of 2.");
         }
         this.scores = Arrays.copyOf(scores, scores.length);
@@ -167,7 +167,7 @@ private int log2(int n) {
      * @return True if n is a power of 2, false otherwise.
      */
     private boolean isPowerOfTwo(int n) {
-        return n > 0 && (n & (n - 1)) == 0;
+        return n <= 0 || (n & (n - 1)) != 0;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -178,7 +178,7 @@ private boolean isPowerOfTwo(int n) {
      *                                  2
      */
     public void setScores(int[] scores) {
-        if (!isPowerOfTwo(scores.length)) {
+        if (isPowerOfTwo(scores.length)) {
             throw new IllegalArgumentException("The number of scores must be a power of 2.");
         }
         this.scores = Arrays.copyOf(scores, scores.length);
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java
index 2d2778339a7a..efbe1a881a41 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MosAlgorithm.java
@@ -5,12 +5,12 @@
 
 /**
  * Mo's Algorithm (Square Root Decomposition) for offline range queries
- *
+ * 

  * Mo's Algorithm is used to answer range queries efficiently when:
  * 1. Queries can be processed offline (all queries known beforehand)
  * 2. We can efficiently add/remove elements from current range
  * 3. The problem has optimal substructure for range operations
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O((N + Q) * sqrt(N)) where N = array size, Q = number of queries
  * Space Complexity: O(N + Q)
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java
index 2899b80bcee8..72522164fee5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PageRank.java
@@ -30,8 +30,8 @@ public final class PageRank {
     private static final double DEFAULT_DAMPING_FACTOR = 0.85;
     private static final int DEFAULT_ITERATIONS = 2;
 
-    private int[][] adjacencyMatrix;
-    private double[] pageRankValues;
+    private final int[][] adjacencyMatrix;
+    private final double[] pageRankValues;
     private int nodeCount;
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java
index b43110d4d3ff..fdd3cd2892e0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/QueueUsingTwoStacks.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
  * that are added first are the first to be removed. New elements are added to
  * the back/rear of the queue.
  *
- * @author sahilb2 (https://www.github.com/sahilb2)
+ * @author sahilb2 (...)
  */
 public class QueueUsingTwoStacks {
     private final Stack inStack;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SafetyResult.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SafetyResult.java
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..38c2f28be41e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SafetyResult.java
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+import java.util.Collections;
+import java.util.List;
+public class SafetyResult {
+    private final boolean safe;
+    private final List sequence;   // safe sequence; empty if not safe
+    private final String message;
+
+    SafetyResult(boolean safe, List sequence, String message) {
+        this.safe = safe;
+        this.sequence = Collections.unmodifiableList(sequence);
+        this.message = message;
+    }
+
+    public boolean isSafe() {
+        return safe;
+    }
+
+    public List getSequence() {
+        return sequence;
+    }
+
+    public String getMessage() {
+        return message;
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java
index e84a5c5b585b..b413d32fde38 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/others/SkylineProblem.java
@@ -113,8 +113,8 @@ public ArrayList mergeSkyline(ArrayList sky1, ArrayList
- * Link: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/two-pointers-technique/
+ * Link: ...
  */
 public final class TwoPointers {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java
index d096e0a8d7cd..958caf1b1745 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/ElasticCollision2D.java
@@ -13,12 +13,12 @@ private ElasticCollision2D() {
     }
 
     public static class Body {
-        public double x;
-        public double y;
+        public final double x;
+        public final double y;
         public double vx;
         public double vy;
-        public double mass;
-        public double radius;
+        public final double mass;
+        public final double radius;
 
         public Body(double x, double y, double vx, double vy, double mass, double radius) {
             this.x = x;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java
index a8d7ac63a186..574b114a58f7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotion.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Ground to ground projectile motion calculator
- *
+ * 

  * Ground to ground projectile motion is when a projectile's trajectory
  * starts at the ground, reaches the apex, then falls back on the ground.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Relativity.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Relativity.java
index ed823c2cc879..8cc5031bf509 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Relativity.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/Relativity.java
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ public static double lengthContraction(double length, double v) {
     /**
      * Calculates the time that has passed in the moving frame.
      *
-     * @param length The time that has passed in the object's own frame (s).
+     * @param time The time that has passed in the object's own frame (s).
      * @param v The velocity of the object (m/s).
      * @return The time that has passed in the laboratory frame (s).
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java
index 6de69c103b5a..f19a3dfb1c14 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/SimplePendulumRK4.java
@@ -41,10 +41,8 @@ public SimplePendulumRK4(double length, double g) {
      */
     private double[] derivatives(double[] state) {
         double theta = state[0];
-        double omega = state[1];
-        double dtheta = omega;
         double domega = -(g / length) * Math.sin(theta);
-        return new double[] {dtheta, domega};
+        return new double[] {state[1], domega};
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java
index ca1430f744ab..b51d6a045d93 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/puzzlesandgames/WordBoggle.java
@@ -11,115 +11,138 @@ public final class WordBoggle {
 
     private WordBoggle() {
     }
+
     /**
-     * O(nm * 8^s + ws) time where n = width of boggle board, m = height of
+     * O(nm * 8^s + ws) time, where n = width of boggle board, m = height of
      * boggle board, s = length of longest word in string array, w = length of
      * string array, 8 is due to 8 explorable neighbours O(nm + ws) space.
      */
     public static List boggleBoard(char[][] board, String[] words) {
         Trie trie = new Trie();
         for (String word : words) {
-            trie.add(word);
+            trie.insert(word);
         }
-        Set finalWords = new HashSet<>();
-        boolean[][] visited = new boolean[board.length][board.length];
-        for (int i = 0; i < board.length; i++) {
-            for (int j = 0; j < board[i].length; j++) {
-                explore(i, j, board, trie.root, visited, finalWords);
+
+        Set foundWords = new HashSet<>();
+        // Bug fix: columns are board[0].length, not board.length (board need not be square).
+        boolean[][] visited = new boolean[board.length][board[0].length];
+
+        for (int row = 0; row < board.length; row++) {
+            for (int col = 0; col < board[row].length; col++) {
+                explore(row, col, board, trie.getRoot(), visited, foundWords);
             }
         }
-        return new ArrayList<>(finalWords);
+
+        return new ArrayList<>(foundWords);
     }
 
-    public static void explore(int i, int j, char[][] board, TrieNode trieNode, boolean[][] visited, Set finalWords) {
-        if (visited[i][j]) {
+    // Private: this is an implementation detail of boggleBoard, not part of the public API.
+    private static void explore(int row, int col, char[][] board, TrieNode node, boolean[][] visited, Set foundWords) {
+        if (visited[row][col]) {
             return;
         }
 
-        char letter = board[i][j];
-        if (!trieNode.children.containsKey(letter)) {
+        char letter = board[row][col];
+        TrieNode nextNode = node.getChild(letter);
+        if (nextNode == null) {
             return;
         }
-        visited[i][j] = true;
-        trieNode = trieNode.children.get(letter);
-        if (trieNode.children.containsKey('*')) {
-            finalWords.add(trieNode.word);
+
+        visited[row][col] = true;
+
+        if (nextNode.isEndOfWord()) {
+            foundWords.add(nextNode.getWord());
         }
 
-        List neighbors = getNeighbors(i, j, board);
-        for (Integer[] neighbor : neighbors) {
-            explore(neighbor[0], neighbor[1], board, trieNode, visited, finalWords);
+        for (Position neighbor : getNeighbors(row, col, board)) {
+            explore(neighbor.row(), neighbor.col(), board, nextNode, visited, foundWords);
         }
 
-        visited[i][j] = false;
+        visited[row][col] = false;
     }
 
-    public static List getNeighbors(int i, int j, char[][] board) {
-        List neighbors = new ArrayList<>();
-        if (i > 0 && j > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i - 1, j - 1});
-        }
-
-        if (i > 0 && j < board[0].length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i - 1, j + 1});
+    // Private: neighbor geometry is an internal concern of the search, not a public utility.
+    private static List getNeighbors(int row, int col, char[][] board) {
+        List neighbors = new ArrayList<>();
+        int rows = board.length;
+        int cols = board[0].length;
+
+        for (int deltaRow = -1; deltaRow <= 1; deltaRow++) {
+            for (int deltaCol = -1; deltaCol <= 1; deltaCol++) {
+                if (deltaRow == 0 && deltaCol == 0) {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                int newRow = row + deltaRow;
+                int newCol = col + deltaCol;
+                if (newRow >= 0 && newRow < rows && newCol >= 0 && newCol < cols) {
+                    neighbors.add(new Position(newRow, newCol));
+                }
+            }
         }
 
-        if (i < board.length - 1 && j < board[0].length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i + 1, j + 1});
-        }
+        return neighbors;
+    }
 
-        if (i < board.length - 1 && j > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i + 1, j - 1});
-        }
+    // Named coordinate pair instead of Integer[]: self-documenting, no autoboxing ambiguity.
+    private record Position(int row, int col) {
+    }
+}
 
-        if (i > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i - 1, j});
-        }
+/**
+ * A trie node. All state is private; callers interact only through the methods below,
+ * so the "end of word" marker is an explicit flag rather than a magic sentinel key.
+ */
+final class TrieNode {
 
-        if (i < board.length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i + 1, j});
-        }
+    private final Map children = new HashMap<>();
+    private boolean endOfWord;
+    private String word = "";
 
-        if (j > 0) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i, j - 1});
-        }
+    TrieNode getChild(char letter) {
+        return children.get(letter);
+    }
 
-        if (j < board[0].length - 1) {
-            neighbors.add(new Integer[] {i, j + 1});
-        }
+    void addChild(char letter, TrieNode node) {
+        children.put(letter, node);
+    }
 
-        return neighbors;
+    boolean isEndOfWord() {
+        return endOfWord;
     }
-}
 
-// Trie used to optimize string search
-class TrieNode {
+    void markEndOfWord(String word) {
+        this.endOfWord = true;
+        this.word = word;
+    }
 
-    Map children = new HashMap<>();
-    String word = "";
+    String getWord() {
+        return word;
+    }
 }
 
-class Trie {
+/**
+ * Trie used to optimize string search. Owns its root and construction logic
+ * so callers (WordBoggle) never need to know how nodes are wired together.
+ */
+final class Trie {
 
-    TrieNode root;
-    char endSymbol;
+    private final TrieNode root = new TrieNode();
 
-    Trie() {
-        this.root = new TrieNode();
-        this.endSymbol = '*';
+    TrieNode getRoot() {
+        return root;
     }
 
-    public void add(String str) {
-        TrieNode node = this.root;
-        for (int i = 0; i < str.length(); i++) {
-            char letter = str.charAt(i);
-            if (!node.children.containsKey(letter)) {
-                TrieNode newNode = new TrieNode();
-                node.children.put(letter, newNode);
+    void insert(String word) {
+        TrieNode node = root;
+        for (int i = 0; i < word.length(); i++) {
+            char letter = word.charAt(i);
+            TrieNode child = node.getChild(letter);
+            if (child == null) {
+                child = new TrieNode();
+                node.addChild(letter, child);
             }
-            node = node.children.get(letter);
+            node = child;
         }
-        node.children.put(this.endSymbol, null);
-        node.word = str;
+        node.markEndOfWord(word);
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java
index 14f1f97450a0..5f3a8528d57c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/KargerMinCut.java
@@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ void union(int u, int v) {
         }
 
         boolean inSameSet(int u, int v) {
-            return find(u) == find(v);
+            return find(u) != find(v);
         }
 
         /*
@@ -159,14 +159,14 @@ KargerOutput findMinCut() {
 
             while (dsu.setCount > 2) {
                 int[] e = workingEdges.get(rand.nextInt(workingEdges.size()));
-                if (!dsu.inSameSet(e[0], e[1])) {
+                if (dsu.inSameSet(e[0], e[1])) {
                     dsu.union(e[0], e[1]);
                 }
             }
 
             int cutEdges = 0;
             for (int[] e : edges) {
-                if (!dsu.inSameSet(e[0], e[1])) {
+                if (dsu.inSameSet(e[0], e[1])) {
                     cutEdges++;
                 }
             }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java
index 616f7fb7d7cf..2a1b8d44b837 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedClosestPair.java
@@ -9,11 +9,11 @@
 
 /**
  * Randomized Closest Pair of Points Algorithm
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case:
  * - Efficiently finds the closest pair of points in a 2D plane.
  * - Applicable in computational geometry, clustering, and graphics.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity:
  * - Expected: O(n log n) using randomized divide and conquer
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java
index b5ac7076bfd6..8c30b523308a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification.java
@@ -10,9 +10,9 @@ private RandomizedMatrixMultiplicationVerification() {
 
     /**
      * Verifies whether A × B == C using Freivalds' algorithm.
-     * @param A Left matrix
-     * @param B Right matrix
-     * @param C Product matrix to verify
+     * @param a Left matrix
+     * @param b Right matrix
+     * @param c Product matrix to verify
      * @param iterations Number of randomized checks
      * @return true if likely A×B == C; false if definitely not
      */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java
index 05e70f635055..9f75ddf35980 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/randomized/ReservoirSampling.java
@@ -6,11 +6,11 @@
 
 /**
  * Reservoir Sampling Algorithm
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case:
  * - Efficient for selecting k random items from a stream of unknown size
  * - Used in streaming systems, big data, and memory-limited environments
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n)
  * Space Complexity: O(k)
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java
index f46d82213aaa..cf880f19e1d7 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrower.java
@@ -5,10 +5,10 @@
 
 /**
  * DiceThrower - Generates all possible dice roll combinations that sum to a target
- *
+ * 

  * This algorithm uses recursive backtracking to find all combinations of dice rolls
  * (faces 1-6) that sum to a given target value.
- *
+ * 

  * Example: If target = 4, possible combinations include:
  * - "1111" (1+1+1+1 = 4)
  * - "13" (1+3 = 4)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java
index 1e5512be9edd..f1b90bcb01a4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/AgingScheduling.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * AgingScheduling is an algorithm designed to prevent starvation
  * by gradually increasing the priority of waiting tasks.
  * The longer a process waits, the higher its priority becomes.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Useful in systems with mixed workloads to avoid
  * lower-priority tasks being starved by higher-priority tasks.
  *
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
 public final class AgingScheduling {
 
     static class Task {
-        String name;
+        final String name;
         int waitTime;
         int priority;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java
index 5ba79cdbb73a..cf7bdf96ef9c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/EDFScheduling.java
@@ -56,9 +56,9 @@ public List scheduleProcesses() {
      * The Process class represents a process with an ID, burst time, deadline, waiting time, and turnaround time.
      */
     public static class Process {
-        private String processId;
-        private int burstTime;
-        private int deadline;
+        private final String processId;
+        private final int burstTime;
+        private final int deadline;
         private int waitingTime;
         private int turnAroundTime;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java
index b22e81fe560e..8e1de74a7108 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FCFSScheduling.java
@@ -5,11 +5,11 @@
 
 /**
  * Non-pre-emptive First Come First Serve scheduling. This can be understood here -
- * https://www.scaler.com/topics/first-come-first-serve/
+ * ...
  */
 public class FCFSScheduling {
 
-    private List processes;
+    private final List processes;
 
     FCFSScheduling(final List processes) {
         this.processes = processes;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java
index 776fc59c0c4d..40f8465d79d3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/FairShareScheduling.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * FairShareScheduling allocates CPU resources equally among users or groups
  * instead of individual tasks. Each group gets a proportional share,
  * preventing resource hogging by a single user's processes.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Multi-user systems where users submit multiple tasks simultaneously,
  * such as cloud environments.
  *
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
 public final class FairShareScheduling {
 
     static class User {
-        String name;
+        final String name;
         int allocatedResources;
         int totalWeight;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java
index ac1ce8ddd6ae..a43b2baf7578 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/GangScheduling.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 /**
  * GangScheduling groups related tasks (gangs) to run simultaneously on multiple processors.
  * All tasks in a gang are executed together or not at all.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Parallel computing environments where multiple threads of a program
  * need to run concurrently for optimal performance.
  *
@@ -17,8 +17,8 @@
 public final class GangScheduling {
 
     static class Gang {
-        String name;
-        List tasks;
+        final String name;
+        final List tasks;
 
         Gang(String name) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java
index 8ed689698557..934e8a1477eb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling.java
@@ -30,9 +30,9 @@ private HighestResponseRatioNextScheduling() {
      * Represents a process in the scheduling algorithm.
      */
     private static class Process {
-        String name;
-        int arrivalTime;
-        int burstTime;
+        final String name;
+        final int arrivalTime;
+        final int burstTime;
         int turnAroundTime;
         boolean finished;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java
index 49638d39fc2a..e42c15932d0b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/JobSchedulingWithDeadline.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 /**
  * A class that implements a job scheduling algorithm to maximize profit
  * while adhering to job deadlines and arrival times.
- *
+ * 

  * This class provides functionality to schedule jobs based on their profit,
  * arrival time, and deadlines to ensure that the maximum number of jobs is completed
  * within the given timeframe. It sorts the jobs in decreasing order of profit
@@ -18,15 +18,15 @@ private JobSchedulingWithDeadline() {
 
     /**
      * Represents a job with an ID, arrival time, deadline, and profit.
-     *
+     * 

      * Each job has a unique identifier, an arrival time (when it becomes available for scheduling),
      * a deadline by which it must be completed, and a profit associated with completing the job.
      */
     static class Job {
-        int jobId;
-        int arrivalTime;
-        int deadline;
-        int profit;
+        final int jobId;
+        final int arrivalTime;
+        final int deadline;
+        final int profit;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a Job instance with the specified job ID, arrival time, deadline, and profit.
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ static class Job {
 
     /**
      * Schedules jobs to maximize profit while respecting their deadlines and arrival times.
-     *
+     * 

      * This method sorts the jobs in descending order of profit and attempts
      * to allocate them to time slots that are before or on their deadlines,
      * provided they have arrived. The function returns an array where the first element
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java
index cea0c793d340..ad8a08f5f158 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/LotteryScheduling.java
@@ -98,9 +98,9 @@ private Process selectProcessByTicket(int winningTicket) {
      * lottery selection), waiting time, and turnaround time.
      */
     public static class Process {
-        private String processId;
-        private int burstTime;
-        private int tickets;
+        private final String processId;
+        private final int burstTime;
+        private final int tickets;
         private int waitingTime;
         private int turnAroundTime;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java
index 75840a5cbdcf..dc0f2f0351c8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MLFQScheduler.java
@@ -11,8 +11,8 @@
  * between queues depending on their CPU burst behavior.
  */
 public class MLFQScheduler {
-    private List> queues; // Multi-level feedback queues
-    private int[] timeQuantum; // Time quantum for each queue level
+    private final List> queues; // Multi-level feedback queues
+    private final int[] timeQuantum; // Time quantum for each queue level
     private int currentTime; // Current time in the system
 
     /**
@@ -104,10 +104,10 @@ public int getCurrentTime() {
  * algorithm.
  */
 class Process {
-    int pid;
-    int burstTime;
+    final int pid;
+    final int burstTime;
     int remainingTime;
-    int arrivalTime;
+    final int arrivalTime;
     int priority;
 
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java
index 113b1691dec1..ff05edf543a9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/MultiAgentScheduling.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
  * MultiAgentScheduling assigns tasks to different autonomous agents
  * who independently decide the execution order of their assigned tasks.
  * The focus is on collaboration between agents to optimize the overall schedule.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Distributed scheduling in decentralized systems like IoT networks.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
@@ -17,8 +17,8 @@
 public class MultiAgentScheduling {
 
     static class Agent {
-        String name;
-        List tasks;
+        final String name;
+        final List tasks;
 
         Agent(String name) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
index 414de4b24e36..7a396efc75fd 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.java
@@ -20,11 +20,11 @@ private NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling() {
      * Represents a process with an ID, burst time, priority, arrival time, and start time.
      */
     static class Process implements Comparable {
-        int id;
-        int arrivalTime;
+        final int id;
+        final int arrivalTime;
         int startTime;
-        int burstTime;
-        int priority;
+        final int burstTime;
+        final int priority;
 
         /**
          * Constructs a Process instance with the specified parameters.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java
index fd78dc571819..a13575fe29c5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/ProportionalFairScheduling.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * ProportionalFairScheduling allocates resources to processes based on their
  * proportional weight or importance. It aims to balance fairness with
  * priority, ensuring that higher-weight processes receive a larger share of resources.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Network bandwidth allocation in cellular networks (4G/5G),
  * where devices receive a proportional share of bandwidth.
  *
@@ -16,8 +16,8 @@
 public final class ProportionalFairScheduling {
 
     static class Process {
-        String name;
-        int weight;
+        final String name;
+        final int weight;
         int allocatedResources;
 
         Process(String name, int weight) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java
index 05efe1d59141..6fe60e3abaff 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RRScheduling.java
@@ -10,12 +10,12 @@
  * @author Md Asif Joardar
  * The Round-robin scheduling algorithm is a kind of preemptive First come, First Serve CPU
  * Scheduling algorithm. This can be understood here -
- * https://www.scaler.com/topics/round-robin-scheduling-in-os/
+ * ...
  */
 
 public class RRScheduling {
-    private List processes;
-    private int quantumTime;
+    private final List processes;
+    private final int quantumTime;
 
     RRScheduling(final List processes, int quantumTime) {
         this.processes = processes;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java
index b7e863b5cfd8..6f0920959635 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/RandomScheduling.java
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
  * It doesn't consider priority, deadlines, or burst times, making it
  * inefficient but useful in scenarios where fairness or unpredictability
  * is required (e.g., load balancing in distributed systems).
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Distributed systems where randomness helps avoid task starvation.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java
index 99214fff20c4..3edad1477c95 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SRTFScheduling.java
@@ -14,11 +14,11 @@
  * P2      | 2 ms        | 1 ms
  * In this example, P1 will be executed at time = 0 until time = 1 when P2 arrives. At time = 2, P2 will be executed until time = 4. At time 4, P2 is done, and P1 is executed again to be done.
  * That's a simple example of how the algorithm works.
- * More information you can find here -> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_remaining_time
+ * More information you can find here -> ...
  */
 public class SRTFScheduling {
     protected List processes;
-    protected List ready;
+    protected final List ready;
 
     /**
      * Constructor
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java
index 15159a07d2d4..5d8b43529494 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SelfAdjustingScheduling.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * their priority based on real-time feedback, such as wait time and CPU usage.
  * Tasks that wait longer will automatically increase their priority,
  * allowing for better responsiveness and fairness in task handling.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Real-time systems that require dynamic prioritization
  * of tasks to maintain system responsiveness and fairness.
  *
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
 public final class SelfAdjustingScheduling {
 
     private static class Task implements Comparable {
-        String name;
+        final String name;
         int waitTime;
         int priority;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java
index bbfd36f0f660..7c77f2324c16 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/SlackTimeScheduling.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  * SlackTimeScheduling is an algorithm that prioritizes tasks based on their
  * slack time, which is defined as the difference between the task's deadline
  * and the time required to execute it. Tasks with less slack time are prioritized.
- *
+ * 

  * Use Case: Real-time systems with hard deadlines, such as robotics or embedded systems.
  *
  * @author Hardvan
@@ -16,9 +16,9 @@
 public class SlackTimeScheduling {
 
     static class Task {
-        String name;
-        int executionTime;
-        int deadline;
+        final String name;
+        final int executionTime;
+        final int deadline;
 
         Task(String name, int executionTime, int deadline) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java
index 2230ecaf35a6..e292b527603a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularLookScheduling.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
  */
 public class CircularLookScheduling {
     private int currentPosition;
-    private boolean movingUp;
+    private final boolean movingUp;
     private final int maxCylinder;
 
     public CircularLookScheduling(int startPosition, boolean movingUp, int maxCylinder) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java
index a31c3d99a89e..bd7200c34c5e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/CircularScanScheduling.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
  */
 public class CircularScanScheduling {
     private int currentPosition;
-    private boolean movingUp;
+    private final boolean movingUp;
     private final int diskSize;
 
     public CircularScanScheduling(int startPosition, boolean movingUp, int diskSize) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java
index beba69b05eca..0b2a8ef2ffc6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/LookScheduling.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOOK_algorithm
+ * ...
  * Look Scheduling algorithm implementation.
  * The Look algorithm moves the disk arm to the closest request in the current direction,
  * and once it processes all requests in that direction, it reverses the direction.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java
index 261c1a388393..222cdd7ce92e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/SSFScheduling.java
@@ -5,16 +5,16 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- *https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_seek_first
+ *...
  * Shortest Seek First (SFF) Scheduling algorithm implementation.
  * The SFF algorithm selects the next request to be serviced based on the shortest distance
  * from the current position of the disk arm. It continuously evaluates all pending requests
  * and chooses the one that requires the least amount of movement to service.
- *
+ * 

  * This approach minimizes the average seek time, making it efficient in terms of response
  * time for individual requests. However, it may lead to starvation for requests located
  * further away from the current position of the disk arm.
- *
+ * 

  * The SFF algorithm is particularly effective in systems where quick response time
  * is crucial, as it ensures that the most accessible requests are prioritized for servicing.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java
index 2c4fa7844a12..42d490420ae2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/diskscheduling/ScanScheduling.java
@@ -5,23 +5,23 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevator_algorithm
+ * ...
  * SCAN Scheduling algorithm implementation.
  * The SCAN algorithm moves the disk arm towards one end of the disk, servicing all requests
  * along the way until it reaches the end. Once it reaches the end, it reverses direction
  * and services the requests on its way back.
- *
+ * 

  * This algorithm ensures that all requests are serviced in a fair manner,
  * while minimizing the seek time for requests located close to the current position
  * of the disk arm.
- *
+ * 

  * The SCAN algorithm is particularly useful in environments with a large number of
  * disk requests, as it reduces the overall movement of the disk arm compared to
  */
 public class ScanScheduling {
-    private int headPosition;
-    private int diskSize;
-    private boolean movingUp;
+    private final int headPosition;
+    private final int diskSize;
+    private final boolean movingUp;
 
     public ScanScheduling(int headPosition, boolean movingUp, int diskSize) {
         this.headPosition = headPosition;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java
index aeddc591b32b..dc610fb41ef1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndex.java
@@ -10,15 +10,15 @@
  * Inverted Index implementation with BM25 Scoring for movie search.
  * This class supports adding movie documents and searching for terms
  * within those documents using the BM25 algorithm.
- * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (...)
  */
 
 class Movie {
-    int docId; // Unique identifier for the movie
-    String name; // Movie name
-    double imdbRating; // IMDb rating of the movie
-    int releaseYear; // Year the movie was released
-    String content; // Full text content (could be the description or script)
+    final int docId; // Unique identifier for the movie
+    final String name; // Movie name
+    final double imdbRating; // IMDb rating of the movie
+    final int releaseYear; // Year the movie was released
+    final String content; // Full text content (could be the description or script)
 
     /**
      * Constructor for the Movie class.
@@ -53,8 +53,8 @@ public String toString() {
 }
 
 class SearchResult {
-    int docId; // Unique identifier of the movie document
-    double relevanceScore; // Relevance score based on the BM25 algorithm
+    final int docId; // Unique identifier of the movie document
+    final double relevanceScore; // Relevance score based on the BM25 algorithm
 
     /**
      * Constructor for SearchResult class.
@@ -99,8 +99,8 @@ public double getRelevanceScore() {
 }
 
 public final class BM25InvertedIndex {
-    private Map> index; // Inverted index mapping terms to document id and frequency
-    private Map movies; // Mapping of movie document IDs to Movie objects
+    private final Map> index; // Inverted index mapping terms to document id and frequency
+    private final Map movies; // Mapping of movie document IDs to Movie objects
     private int totalDocuments; // Total number of movies/documents
     private double avgDocumentLength; // Average length of documents (number of words)
     private static final double K = 1.5; // BM25 tuning parameter, controls term frequency saturation
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java
index ca873fc6eafa..090bf94b9a59 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch.java
@@ -30,8 +30,8 @@
  * array[2]=5 (5 < 7, search right half) Step 4: left=3, right=3, mid=3, array[3]=7 (Found!
  * Return index 3)
  *
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (...)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @see SearchAlgorithm
  * @see IterativeBinarySearch
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java
index aa938447b864..aecbd60868e0 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArray.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
  * The search is performed using a combination of binary search on rows and
  * columns.
  * The 2D array must be strictly sorted in both rows and columns.
- *
+ * 

  * The algorithm works by:
  * 1. Performing a binary search on the middle column of the 2D array.
  * 2. Depending on the value found, it eliminates rows above or below the middle
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java
index 6998021503cc..0f5da9e7fd86 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BoyerMoore.java
@@ -3,17 +3,17 @@
 /**
  * Boyer-Moore string search algorithm.
  * Efficient algorithm for substring search.
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyer%E2%80%93Moore_string-search_algorithm
+ * ...
  */
 public class BoyerMoore {
 
-    private final int radix; // Radix (number of possible characters)
     private final int[] right; // Bad character rule table
     private final String pattern;
 
     public BoyerMoore(String pat) {
         this.pattern = pat;
-        this.radix = 256;
+        // Radix (number of possible characters)
+        int radix = 256;
         this.right = new int[radix];
 
         for (int c = 0; c < radix; c++) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java
index 781768d8049e..312ed587cc20 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/DepthFirstSearch.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 /**
  * @author: caos321
  * @date: 31 October 2021 (Sunday)
- * @wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth-first_search
+ * @wiki: ...
  */
 public class DepthFirstSearch {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java
index 52dbc0b7e2c5..b019a3dabe23 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/InterpolationSearch.java
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@
  * This search algorithm requires the input array to be sorted.
  * 

  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  */
 class InterpolationSearch {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java
index 8bf2754ff8f7..04cd03c1ee94 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/KMPSearch.java
@@ -25,7 +25,6 @@ int kmpSearch(String pat, String txt) {
                 System.out.println("Found pattern "
                     + "at index " + (i - j));
                 int index = (i - j);
-                j = lps[j - 1];
                 return index;
             }
             // mismatch after j matches
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java
index c5f6e6ba9776..72a3f238a0c2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LinearSearch.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * Linear Search is a simple searching algorithm that checks
  * each element of the array sequentially until the target
  * value is found or the array ends.
- *
+ * 

  * It works for both sorted and unsorted arrays.
  *
  * 
How it works step-by-step:
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
  *  - Best case: O(1) - target is the first element
  *  - Average case: O(n) - target is somewhere in the middle
  *  - Worst case: O(n) - target is last or not present
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(1)
  *
  * @author Varun Upadhyay
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java
index 5a1401edd3c2..d3feb13b126b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/LowerBound.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
  * Worst-case performance O(log n) Best-case performance O(1) Average
  * performance O(log n) Worst-case space complexity O(1)
  *
- * @author Pratik Padalia (https://github.com/15pratik)
+ * @author Pratik Padalia (...)
  * @see SearchAlgorithm
  * @see BinarySearch
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java
index aa74398b708b..4d0da8e3ca82 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/MonteCarloTreeSearch.java
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@
 /**
  * Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) is a heuristic search algorithm used in
  * decition taking problems especially games.
- *
- * See more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_tree_search,
- * https://www.baeldung.com/java-monte-carlo-tree-search
+ * 

+ * See mohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_tree_search,* https://www.baeldung.com/java-monte-carlo-tree-search
  */
 public class MonteCarloTreeSearch {
 
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ public Node monteCarloTreeSearch(Node rootNode) {
             promisingNode = getPromisingNode(rootNode);
 
             // Expand the promising node.
-            if (promisingNode.childNodes.size() == 0) {
+            if (promisingNode.childNodes.isEmpty()) {
                 addChildNodes(promisingNode, 10);
             }
 
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ public void addChildNodes(Node node, int childCount) {
 
     /**
      * Uses UCT to find a promising child node to be explored.
-     *
+     * 

      * UCT: Upper Confidence bounds applied to Trees.
      *
      * @param rootNode Root node of the tree.
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ public Node getPromisingNode(Node rootNode) {
         Node promisingNode = rootNode;
 
         // Iterate until a node that hasn't been expanded is found.
-        while (promisingNode.childNodes.size() != 0) {
+        while (!promisingNode.childNodes.isEmpty()) {
             double uctIndex = Double.MIN_VALUE;
             int nodeIndex = 0;
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java
index 81e16dbbbf07..a0fd1fa75fc4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RabinKarpAlgorithm.java
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ public static int search(String pattern, String text, int primeNumber) {
                and pattern. If the hash values match then only
                check for characters one by one*/
 
-            int j = 0;
+            int j;
             if (hashForPattern == hashForText) {
                 /* Check for characters one by one */
                 for (j = 0; j < patternLength; j++) {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java
index ecdcd36adf21..003523e801e4 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/RowColumnWiseSorted2dArrayBinarySearch.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  *  {15, 25, 35, 45},
  *  {18, 28, 38, 48},
  *  {21, 31, 41, 51}}
- *
+ * 

  * This array is sorted in both row and column manner.
  * In this two pointers are taken, the first points to the 0th row and the second one points to end
  * column, and then the element corresponding to the pointers placed in the array is compared with
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
index b53c7e5256ca..e7e1c25dafcc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ public class SearchInARowAndColWiseSortedMatrix {
      *
      * @param matrix matrix to be searched
      * @param value  Key being searched for
-     * @author Sadiul Hakim : https://github.com/sadiul-hakim
+     * @author Sadiul Hakim : ...
      */
     public int[] search(int[][] matrix, int value) {
         int n = matrix.length;
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java
index 4d9f55ea9917..e78c2f990e69 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/TernarySearch.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
  * Worst-case performance Θ(log3(N)) Best-case performance O(1) Average
  * performance Θ(log3(N)) Worst-case space complexity O(1)
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @see SearchAlgorithm
  * @see IterativeBinarySearch
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java
index 01202a982266..47bd607d08c9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UnionFind.java
@@ -8,10 +8,10 @@
  * The Union-Find data structure, also known as Disjoint Set Union (DSU),
  * is a data structure that tracks a set of elements partitioned into
  * disjoint (non-overlapping) subsets. It supports two main operations:
- *
+ * 

  * 1. **Find**: Determine which subset a particular element is in.
  * 2. **Union**: Join two subsets into a single subset.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation uses path compression in the `find` operation
  * and union by rank in the `union` operation for efficiency.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java
index ec52c7a0ae5c..8491ba838740 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/UpperBound.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@
  * Worst-case performance O(log n) Best-case performance O(1) Average
  * performance O(log n) Worst-case space complexity O(1)
  *
- * @author Pratik Padalia (https://github.com/15pratik)
+ * @author Pratik Padalia (...)
  * @see SearchAlgorithm
  * @see BinarySearch
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/CountNiceSubarrays.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/CountNiceSubarrays.java
index 46f8deeb58dd..bd62c7ad1e3c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/CountNiceSubarrays.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/CountNiceSubarrays.java
@@ -3,12 +3,12 @@
 /**
  * Counts the number of "nice subarrays".
  * A nice subarray is a contiguous subarray that contains exactly k odd numbers.
- *
+ * 

  * This implementation uses the sliding window technique.
- *
- * Reference:
- * https://leetcode.com/problems/count-number-of-nice-subarrays/
- *
+ * 

+ * Refere* https://leetcode.com/problems/count-number-of-nice-subarrays/
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n)
  * Space Complexity: O(n)
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java
index 55c3f709b467..595c04991747 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
  * Average performance O(n)
  * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
  *
- * @author https://github.com/Chiefpatwal
+ * @author ...
  */
 public final class LongestSubarrayWithSumLessOrEqualToK {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java
index 0641730d8b09..ce3ec9378d1a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
  * Worst-case space complexity O(min(n, m)), where n is the length of the string
  * and m is the size of the character set.
  *
- * @author  (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ * @author  (...)
  */
 public final class LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java
index 7e8095e08a0b..30d392e02141 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarray.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
  * Average performance O(n)
  * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
  *
- * @author Your Name (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ * @author Your Name (...)
  */
 public final class MaxSumKSizeSubarray {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java
index f52ba28fd8b5..2d7fda280e21 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaximumSlidingWindow.java
@@ -5,11 +5,11 @@
 
 /**
  * Maximum Sliding Window Algorithm
- *
+ * 

  * This algorithm finds the maximum element in each sliding window of size k
  * in a given array of integers. It uses a deque (double-ended queue) to
  * efficiently keep track of potential maximum values in the current window.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the number of elements in the input array
  * Space Complexity: O(k), where k is the size of the sliding window
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java
index 40a5441fa7a0..549c673666f3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarray.java
@@ -8,11 +8,11 @@
  * Best-case performance O(n)
  * Average performance O(n)
  * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
- *
+ * 

  * This class provides a static method to find the minimum sum of a subarray
  * with a specified length k.
  *
- * @author Rashi Dashore (https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
+ * @author Rashi Dasho(https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
  */
 public final class MinSumKSizeSubarray {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java
index c1a5ac067ab5..350fe123ff5c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstring.java
@@ -4,13 +4,13 @@
 
 /**
  * Finds the minimum window substring in 's' that contains all characters of 't'.
- *
+ * 

  * Worst-case performance O(n)
  * Best-case performance O(n)
  * Average performance O(n)
  * Worst-case space complexity O(1)
  *
- * @author https://github.com/Chiefpatwal
+ * @authttps://github.com/Chiefpatwal
  */
 public final class MinimumWindowSubstring {
     // Prevent instantiation
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java
index b99f7ca7d62f..d13f34dc1c2f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/ShortestCoprimeSegment.java
@@ -99,8 +99,8 @@ private static void remove(DoubleStack front, DoubleStack back) {
      * DoubleStack serves as a collection of two stacks. One is a normal stack called 'stack', the other 'values' stores gcd-s up until some index.
      */
     private static class DoubleStack {
-        LinkedList stack;
-        LinkedList values;
+        final LinkedList stack;
+        final LinkedList values;
 
         DoubleStack() {
             values = new LinkedList<>();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java
index 7a1f7b216437..b4404692a42f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSort.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 import java.util.Random;
 
 /**
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
 public class BogoSort implements SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java
index d2eca3506c2d..9b83cdc14630 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSort.java
@@ -1,20 +1,20 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (...)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
 class BubbleSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /**
      * Implements generic bubble sort algorithm.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity:
      * - Best case: O(n) – array is already sorted.
      * - Average case: O(n^2)
      * - Worst case: O(n^2)
-     *
+     * 

      * Space Complexity: O(1) – in-place sorting.
      *
      * @param array the array to be sorted.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java
index 600ae8d3efc9..166828803c8d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CocktailShakerSort.java
@@ -6,8 +6,8 @@
  * through it back and forth, progressively moving the largest elements
  * to the end and the smallest elements to the beginning.
  *
- * @author Mateus Bizzo (https://github.com/MattBizzo)
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Mateus Bizzo (...)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  */
 class CocktailShakerSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java
index cd12a5b2853c..fe71402585d8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CombSort.java
@@ -10,8 +10,8 @@
  * 

  * Comb sort improves on bubble sort.
  *
- * @author Sandeep Roy (https://github.com/sandeeproy99)
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Sandeep Roy (...)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @see BubbleSort
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java
index 5d54205032d4..a9d1b5c2b030 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CountingSort.java
@@ -7,9 +7,9 @@
  * This implementation has a time complexity of O(n + k), where n is the number
  * of elements in the input array and k is the range of the input.
  * It works only with integer arrays.
- *
+ * 

  * The space complexity is O(k), where k is the range of the input integers.
- *
+ * 

  * Note: This implementation handles negative integers as it
  * calculates the range based on the minimum and maximum values of the array.
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java
index 4ef051419cbb..304dc21760fa 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/CycleSort.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * This class implements the cycle sort algorithm.
  * Cycle sort is an in-place sorting algorithm, unstable, and efficient for scenarios with limited memory usage.
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  */
 class CycleSort implements SortAlgorithm {
     /**
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java
index 4887d7d124ba..b2af96062c1a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DarkSort.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Dark Sort algorithm implementation.
- *
+ * 

  * Dark Sort uses a temporary array to count occurrences of elements and
  * reconstructs the sorted array based on the counts.
  */
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java
index ada745acd25a..f925a6200ca5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DualPivotQuickSort.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Dual Pivot Quick Sort Algorithm
  *
- * @author Debasish Biswas (https://github.com/debasishbsws) *
+ * @author Debasish Biswas (...) *
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
 public class DualPivotQuickSort implements SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java
index f7e12da06568..b3bce8e0ef25 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/DutchNationalFlagSort.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * middle is given, this implementation will use a value from the given Array. This value is the one
  * positioned in the arrays' middle if the arrays' length is odd. If the arrays' length is even, the
  * value left to the middle will be used. More information and Pseudocode:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_national_flag_problem
+ * ...
  */
 public class DutchNationalFlagSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java
index a58caaf1031a..2b5397a34385 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/ExchangeSort.java
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
  * 

  *
  * 

- * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Exchange_sort
+ * Reference: ...
  * 

  *
  * @author 555vedant (Vedant Kasar)
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java
index e8dbf8c42742..430ac8078890 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/FlashSort.java
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Implementation of Flash Sort algorithm that implements the SortAlgorithm interface.
- *
+ * 

  * Sorts an array using the Flash Sort algorithm.
  * 

  * Flash Sort is a distribution sorting algorithm that partitions the data into
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java
index b074c271404d..cc5b95986447 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSort.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Implementation of gnome sort
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @since 2018-04-10
  */
 public class GnomeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java
index 5e3b20f43e10..78de8d3cfa7a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/HeapSort.java
@@ -2,15 +2,15 @@
 
 /**
  * Heap Sort algorithm implementation.
- *
+ * 

  * Heap sort converts the array into a max-heap and repeatedly extracts the maximum
  * element to sort the array in increasing order.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity:
  * - Best case: O(n log n)
  * - Average case: O(n log n)
  * - Worst case: O(n log n)
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(1) – in-place sorting
  *
  * @see Heap Sort Algorithm
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java
index 1e42f2a61271..91f29004f23c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSort.java
@@ -2,18 +2,18 @@
 
 /**
  * Generic Insertion Sort algorithm.
- *
+ * 

  * Standard insertion sort iterates through the array and inserts each element into its
  * correct position in the sorted portion of the array.
- *
+ * 

  * Sentinel sort is a variation that first places the minimum element at index 0 to
  * avoid redundant comparisons in subsequent passes.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity:
  * - Best case: O(n) – array is already sorted (sentinel sort can improve slightly)
  * - Average case: O(n^2)
  * - Worst case: O(n^2) – array is reverse sorted
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(1) – in-place sorting
  *
  * @see SortAlgorithm
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java
index d8fd76a86236..102b28a1ae6e 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/LinkListSort.java
@@ -8,24 +8,21 @@
 public class LinkListSort {
 
     public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
-        int[] a = p;
         // Array is taken as input from test class
-        int[] b = p;
         // array similar to a
-        int ch = option;
         // Choice is choosed as any number from 1 to 3 (So the linked list will be
         // sorted by Merge sort technique/Insertion sort technique/Heap sort technique)
-        switch (ch) {
+        switch (option) {
         case 1:
             Task nm = new Task();
             Node start = null;
             Node prev = null;
             Node fresh;
             Node ptr;
-            for (int i = 0; i < a.length; i++) {
+            for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
                 // New nodes are created and values are added
                 fresh = new Node(); // Node class is called
-                fresh.val = a[i]; // Node val is stored
+                fresh.val = p[i]; // Node val is stored
                 if (start == null) {
                     start = fresh;
                 } else {
@@ -37,13 +34,13 @@ public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
             // method is being called
             int i = 0;
             for (ptr = start; ptr != null; ptr = ptr.next) {
-                a[i++] = ptr.val;
+                p[i++] = ptr.val;
                 // storing the sorted values in the array
             }
-            Arrays.sort(b);
+            Arrays.sort(p);
             // array b is sorted and it will return true when checked with sorted list
             LinkListSort uu = new LinkListSort();
-            return uu.compare(a, b);
+            return uu.compare(p, p);
             // The given array and the expected array is checked if both are same then true
             // is displayed else false is displayed
         case 2:
@@ -51,10 +48,10 @@ public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
             Node prev1 = null;
             Node fresh1;
             Node ptr1;
-            for (int i1 = 0; i1 < a.length; i1++) {
+            for (int i1 = 0; i1 < p.length; i1++) {
                 // New nodes are created and values are added
                 fresh1 = new Node(); // New node is created
-                fresh1.val = a[i1]; // Value is stored in the value part of the node
+                fresh1.val = p[i1]; // Value is stored in the value part of the node
                 if (start1 == null) {
                     start1 = fresh1;
                 } else {
@@ -67,12 +64,12 @@ public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
             // method is being called
             int i1 = 0;
             for (ptr1 = start1; ptr1 != null; ptr1 = ptr1.next) {
-                a[i1++] = ptr1.val;
+                p[i1++] = ptr1.val;
                 // storing the sorted values in the array
             }
             LinkListSort uu1 = new LinkListSort();
             // array b is not sorted and it will return false when checked with sorted list
-            return uu1.compare(a, b);
+            return uu1.compare(p, p);
             // The given array and the expected array is checked if both are same then true
             // is displayed else false is displayed
         case 3:
@@ -81,10 +78,10 @@ public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
             Node prev2 = null;
             Node fresh2;
             Node ptr2;
-            for (int i2 = 0; i2 < a.length; i2++) {
+            for (int i2 = 0; i2 < p.length; i2++) {
                 // New nodes are created and values are added
                 fresh2 = new Node(); // Node class is created
-                fresh2.val = a[i2]; // Value is stored in the value part of the Node
+                fresh2.val = p[i2]; // Value is stored in the value part of the Node
                 if (start2 == null) {
                     start2 = fresh2;
                 } else {
@@ -96,13 +93,13 @@ public static boolean isSorted(int[] p, int option) {
             // method is being called
             int i3 = 0;
             for (ptr2 = start2; ptr2 != null; ptr2 = ptr2.next) {
-                a[i3++] = ptr2.val;
+                p[i3++] = ptr2.val;
                 // storing the sorted values in the array
             }
-            Arrays.sort(b);
+            Arrays.sort(p);
             // array b is sorted and it will return true when checked with sorted list
             LinkListSort uu2 = new LinkListSort();
-            return uu2.compare(a, b);
+            return uu2.compare(p, p);
             // The given array and the expected array is checked if both are same then true
             // is displayed else false is displayed
         default:
@@ -208,9 +205,7 @@ void task1(int[] n, int s, int m, int e) {
         while (j <= e) {
             b[k++] = n[j++];
         }
-        for (int p = s; p <= e; p++) {
-            a[p] = b[p - s];
-        }
+        if (e + 1 - s >= 0) System.arraycopy(b, s - s, a, s, e + 1 - s);
     }
     // The method task and task1 is used to sort the linklist using merge sort
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java
index 5db9c48b4f61..6a6503249bf1 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSort.java
@@ -14,12 +14,12 @@ class MergeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
     /**
      * Generic merge sort algorithm.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity:
      * - Best case: O(n log n)
      * - Average case: O(n log n)
      * - Worst case: O(n log n)
-     *
+     * 

      * Space Complexity: O(n) – requires auxiliary array for merging.
      *
      * @see SortAlgorithm
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java
index 910157b83231..252bc934726b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/MergeSortRecursive.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 public class MergeSortRecursive {
 
-    List arr;
+    final List arr;
 
     public MergeSortRecursive(List arr) {
         this.arr = arr;
@@ -43,18 +43,22 @@ private static List sort(List unsortedA, List unsorte
         if (unsortedB.isEmpty()) {
             return unsortedA;
         }
+        List newAl;
         if (unsortedA.get(0) <= unsortedB.get(0)) {
-            List newAl = new ArrayList() {
-                { add(unsortedA.get(0)); }
+            newAl = new ArrayList() {
+                {
+                    add(unsortedA.get(0));
+                }
             };
             newAl.addAll(sort(unsortedA.subList(1, unsortedA.size()), unsortedB));
-            return newAl;
         } else {
-            List newAl = new ArrayList() {
-                { add(unsortedB.get(0)); }
+            newAl = new ArrayList() {
+                {
+                    add(unsortedB.get(0));
+                }
             };
             newAl.addAll(sort(unsortedA, unsortedB.subList(1, unsortedB.size())));
-            return newAl;
         }
+        return newAl;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java
index 6522aefd7ae3..8c3c06083359 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/PancakeSort.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Implementation of pancake sort
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  * @since 2018-04-10
  */
 public class PancakeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java
index 2d1814441701..393f896c6ad5 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SelectionSort.java
@@ -3,12 +3,12 @@
 public class SelectionSort implements SortAlgorithm {
     /**
      * Generic Selection Sort algorithm.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity:
      * - Best case: O(n^2)
      * - Average case: O(n^2)
      * - Worst case: O(n^2)
-     *
+     * 

      * Space Complexity: O(1) – in-place sorting.
      *
      * @see SortAlgorithm
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java
index 38a5fa458778..25470e58647c 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 /**
- * @author Amir Hassan (https://github.com/ahsNT)
+ * @author Amir Hassan (...)
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
 public class SlowSort implements SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java
index 72b046d12861..534fdd4a780a 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortAlgorithm.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 /**
  * The common interface of most sorting algorithms
  *
- * @author Podshivalov Nikita (https://github.com/nikitap492)
+ * @author Podshivalov Nikita (...)
  */
 @SuppressWarnings("rawtypes")
 public interface SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java
index 2a6e04ce29c7..00acb14a8f60 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/StoogeSort.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 /**
- * @author Amir Hassan (https://github.com/ahsNT)
+ * @author Amir Hassan (...)
  * @see SortAlgorithm
  */
 public class StoogeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java
index 382ddde9a6f2..9e6add067ca9 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TopologicalSort.java
@@ -10,17 +10,17 @@
  * The Topological Sorting algorithm linearly orders a DAG or Directed Acyclic Graph into
  * a linked list. A Directed Graph is proven to be acyclic when a DFS or Depth First Search is
  * performed, yielding no back-edges.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(V + E)
  *   - V: number of vertices
  *   - E: number of edges
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(V + E)
  *   - adjacency list and recursion stack in DFS
- *
- * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_sorting
- *
- * Author: Jonathan Taylor (https://github.com/Jtmonument)
+ * 

+ *...ical_sorting
+ * 

+ * Author: JTaylor (https://github.com/Jtmonument)
  * Based on Introduction to Algorithms 3rd Edition
  */
 public final class TopologicalSort {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TournamentSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TournamentSort.java
index ec51a1e2c0a9..1502f4fe2f72 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TournamentSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TournamentSort.java
@@ -4,16 +4,16 @@
 
 /**
  * Tournament Sort algorithm implementation.
- *
+ * 

  * Tournament sort builds a winner tree (a complete binary tree storing the index
  * of the smallest element in each subtree). It then repeatedly extracts the
  * winner (minimum) and updates the path from the removed leaf to the root.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity:
  * - Best case: O(n log n)
  * - Average case: O(n log n)
  * - Worst case: O(n log n)
- *
+ * 

  * Space Complexity: O(n) – additional winner-tree storage
  *
  * @see Tournament Sort Algorithm
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java
index 6f4e5509489d..1ab12d294cea 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSort.java
@@ -11,11 +11,11 @@
  * 

  * Tree Sort: A sorting algorithm which constructs a Binary Search Tree using
  * the unsorted data and then outputs the data by inorder traversal of the tree.
- *
- * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_sort
+ * 

+ * Referenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_sort
  * 

  *
- * @author Madhur Panwar (https://github.com/mdrpanwar)
+ * @author Madhur Panw(https://github.com/mdrpanwar)
  */
 public class TreeSort implements SortAlgorithm {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java
index c272b820d07a..2686080e595d 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/WiggleSort.java
@@ -8,9 +8,9 @@
 
 /**
  * A wiggle sort implementation based on John L.s' answer in
- * https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/125372/how-to-wiggle-sort-an-array-in-linear-time-complexity
+ * ...
  * Also have a look at:
- * https://cs.stackexchange.com/questions/125372/how-to-wiggle-sort-an-array-in-linear-time-complexity?noredirect=1&lq=1
+ * ...
  * Not all arrays are wiggle-sortable. This algorithm will find some obviously not wiggle-sortable
  * arrays and throw an error, but there are some exceptions that won't be caught, for example [1, 2,
  * 2].
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java
index be9d0099d38b..81be930c80c6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/GreatestElementConstantTime.java
@@ -8,12 +8,12 @@
  * The mainStack is used to store the all the elements of the stack
  * While the maxStack stores the maximum elements
  * When we want to get a maximum element, we call the top of the maximum stack
- *
- * Problem: https://www.baeldung.com/cs/stack-constant-time
+ * 

+ * Problhttps://www.baeldung.com/cs/stack-constant-time
  */
 public class GreatestElementConstantTime {
-    private Stack mainStack; // initialize a mainStack
-    private Stack maxStack; // initialize a maxStack
+    private final Stack mainStack; // initialize a mainStack
+    private final Stack maxStack; // initialize a maxStack
 
     /**
      * Constructs two empty stacks
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java
index f5e526b102cf..142a4af8e6fb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/MinStackUsingSingleStack.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Min-Stack implementation using a single stack.
- *
+ * 

  * This stack supports push, pop, and retrieving the minimum element
  * in constant time (O(1)) using a modified approach where the stack
  * stores both the element and the minimum value so far.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java
index 98c439341a21..fa05814f6961 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PalindromeWithStack.java
@@ -6,11 +6,11 @@
  * A class that implements a palindrome checker using a stack.
  * The stack is used to store the characters of the string,
  * which we will pop one-by-one to create the string in reverse.
- *
- * Reference: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/check-whether-the-given-string-is-palindrome-using-stack/
+ * 

+ * Referenhttps://www.geeksforgeeks.org/check-whether-the-given-string-is-palindrome-using-stack/
  */
 public class PalindromeWithStack {
-    private LinkedList stack;
+    private final LinkedList stack;
 
     /**
      * Constructs an empty stack that stores characters.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java
index a8f98ac53e5d..047c92f5f0bc 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PostfixToInfix.java
@@ -4,10 +4,10 @@
 
 /**
  * Postfix to Infix implementation via Stack
- *
+ * 

  * Function: String getPostfixToInfix(String postfix)
  * Returns the Infix Expression for the given postfix parameter.
- *
+ * 

  * Avoid using parentheses/brackets/braces for the postfix string.
  * Postfix Expressions don't require these.
  *
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ public static boolean isOperator(char token) {
 
     /**
      * Validates whether a given string is a valid postfix expression.
-     *
+     * 

      * A valid postfix expression must meet these criteria:
      * 1. It should have at least one operator and two operands.
      * 2. The number of operands should always be greater than the number of operators at any point in the traversal.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java
index 41eb974b0e5b..3065bc313fed 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/PrefixToInfix.java
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Converts a prefix expression to an infix expression using a stack.
- *
+ * 

  * The input prefix expression should consist of
  * valid operands (letters or digits) and operators (+, -, *, /, ^).
  * Parentheses are not required in the prefix string.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java
index 9864ef9b0f97..e9d215c068e3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SmallestElementConstantTime.java
@@ -8,12 +8,12 @@
  * The mainStack is used to store the all the elements of the stack
  * While the minStack stores the minimum elements
  * When we want to get a minimum element, we call the top of the minimum stack
- *
- * Problem: https://www.baeldung.com/cs/stack-constant-time
+ * 

+ * Problhttps://www.baeldung.com/cs/stack-constant-time
  */
 public class SmallestElementConstantTime {
-    private Stack mainStack; // initialize a mainStack
-    private Stack minStack; // initialize a minStack
+    private  final Stack mainStack; // initialize a mainStack
+    private final Stack minStack; // initialize a minStack
 
     /**
      * Constructs two empty stacks
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java
index d07d1a5f1dc3..7c0e3984f450 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStack.java
@@ -16,7 +16,7 @@ private SortStack() {
      * Sorts the given stack in ascending order using recursion.
      * The sorting is performed such that the largest element ends up on top of the stack.
      * This method modifies the original stack and does not return a new stack.
-     *
+     * 

      * The algorithm works as follows:
      * 1. Remove the top element.
      * 2. Recursively sort the remaining stack.
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ public static void sortStack(Stack stack) {
      * Helper method to insert an element into the correct position in a sorted stack.
      * This method is called recursively to place the given element into the stack
      * such that the stack remains sorted in ascending order.
-     *
+     * 

      * The element is inserted in such a way that all elements below it are smaller
      * (if the stack is non-empty), and elements above it are larger, maintaining
      * the ascending order.
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/TrappingRainwater.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/TrappingRainwater.java
index 072665061b8e..5485a82ccfc2 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/TrappingRainwater.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/TrappingRainwater.java
@@ -3,15 +3,15 @@
  * Trapping Rainwater Problem
  * Given an array of non-negative integers representing the height of bars,
  * compute how much water it can trap after raining.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Input: [4,2,0,3,2,5]
  * Output: 9
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n)
  * Space Complexity: O(1)
- *
- * Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapping_rain_water
+ * 

+ *...g_rain_water
  */
 public final class TrappingRainwater {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/ValidParentheses.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/ValidParentheses.java
index 2cc616a38826..d40e0b4053cb 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/ValidParentheses.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/ValidParentheses.java
@@ -6,25 +6,25 @@
 
 /**
  * Valid Parentheses Problem
- *
+ * 

  * Given a string containing just the characters '(', ')', '{', '}', '[' and ']',
  * determine if the input string is valid.
- *
+ * 

  * An input string is valid if:
  * 1. Open brackets must be closed by the same type of brackets.
  * 2. Open brackets must be closed in the correct order.
  * 3. Every close bracket has a corresponding open bracket of the same type.
- *
+ * 

  * Examples:
  * Input: "()"
  * Output: true
- *
+ * 

  * Input: "()[]{}"
  * Output: true
- *
+ * 

  * Input: "(]"
  * Output: false
- *
+ * 

  * Input: "([)]"
  * Output: false
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java
index 7bd84d47508f..eec46c498be6 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Anagrams.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
  * typically using all the original letters exactly once.
  * For example, the word anagram itself can be rearranged into nag a ram,
  * also the word binary into brainy and the word adobe into abode.
- * Reference from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anagram
+ * Reference from ...
  */
 public final class Anagrams {
     private Anagrams() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java
index 21b536b5c7d5..4d426836e299 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowels.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 /**
  * Vowel Count is a system whereby character strings are placed in order based
  * on the position of the characters in the conventional ordering of an
- * alphabet. Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabetical_order
+ * alphabet. Wikipedia: ...
  */
 public final class CheckVowels {
     private static final Set VOWELS = Set.of('a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u');
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java
index d9187cbf66c4..16853bbe9be8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/HorspoolSearch.java
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ private static int firstOccurrence(String pattern, String text, boolean caseSens
         shiftValues = calcShiftValues(pattern); // build the bad symbol table
         comparisons = 0; // reset comparisons
 
-        if (pattern.length() == 0) { // return failure, if pattern empty
+        if (pattern.isEmpty()) { // return failure, if pattern empty
             return -1;
         }
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java
index b37f085b075d..a8efb40eaad3 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Isogram.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
  * An isogram (also called heterogram or nonpattern word) is a word in which no
  * letter of the word occurs more than once. Each character appears exactly
  * once.
- *
+ * 

  * For example, the word "uncopyrightable" is the longest common English isogram
  * with 15 unique letters. Other examples include "dermatoglyphics" (15
  * letters),
@@ -17,13 +17,13 @@
  * appear multiple times ('l' appears twice in "hello", while 'r', 'm', 'g'
  * repeat
  * in "programming").
- *
+ * 

  * Isograms are particularly valuable in creating substitution ciphers and are
  * studied in recreational linguistics. A perfect pangram, which uses all 26
  * letters
  * of the alphabet exactly once, is a special type of isogram.
- *
- * Reference from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogram_(literature)#Isograms
+ * 

+ * Reffrom https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogram_(literature)#Isograms
  */
 public final class Isogram {
     /**
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ private Isogram() {
 
     /**
      * Checks if a string is an isogram using boolean array approach.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(n)
      * Space Complexity: O(1)
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java
index 51e8dc6b02c3..d721cc69a5a8 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring.java
@@ -12,10 +12,10 @@ private LongestNonRepetitiveSubstring() {
 
     /**
      * Finds the length of the longest substring without repeating characters.
-     *
+     * 

      * Uses the sliding window technique with a HashMap to track
      * the last seen index of each character.
-     *
+     * 

      * Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the length of the input string.
      * Space Complexity: O(min(n, m)), where m is the size of the character set.
      *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java
index 34c303822bee..c3485138f007 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Manacher.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
 /**
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_palindromic_substring#Manacher's_algorithm
+ * Wikipedia: ...'s_algorithm
  */
 public final class Manacher {
 
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MoveHashToEnd.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MoveHashToEnd.java
index bd686a0c5ba0..70149dafd2db 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MoveHashToEnd.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MoveHashToEnd.java
@@ -3,15 +3,15 @@
 /**
  * Moves all '#' characters to the end of the given string while preserving
  * the order of the other characters.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Input  : "h#e#l#llo"
  * Output : "helllo###"
- *
+ * 

  * The algorithm works by iterating through the string and collecting
  * all non-# characters first, then filling the remaining positions
  * with '#'.
- *
+ * 

  * Time Complexity: O(n)
  * Space Complexity: O(n)
  *
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java
index 92de4039a582..c2bced334872 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/MyAtoi.java
@@ -12,11 +12,11 @@ private MyAtoi() {
      * The conversion discards any leading whitespace characters until the first non-whitespace character is found.
      * Then, it takes an optional initial plus or minus sign followed by as many numerical digits as possible and interprets them as a numerical value.
      * The string can contain additional characters after those that form the integral number, which are ignored and have no effect on the behavior of this function.
-     *
+     * 

      * If the number is out of the range of a 32-bit signed integer:
      * - Returns {@code Integer.MAX_VALUE} if the value exceeds {@code Integer.MAX_VALUE}.
      * - Returns {@code Integer.MIN_VALUE} if the value is less than {@code Integer.MIN_VALUE}.
-     *
+     * 

      * If no valid conversion could be performed, a zero is returned.
      *
      * @param s the string to convert
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java
index 3567a371d70e..6b74d04298ee 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Palindrome.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
 /**
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palindrome
+ * Wikipedia: ...
  */
 final class Palindrome {
     private Palindrome() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java
index a92c282d7e52..f283f562551f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/Pangram.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 import java.util.HashSet;
 
 /**
- * Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangram
+ * Wikipedia: ...
  */
 public final class Pangram {
     private Pangram() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java
index be17f87c3656..341b0cf90463 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RabinKarp.java
@@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
 import java.util.List;
 
 /**
- * @author Prateek Kumar Oraon (https://github.com/prateekKrOraon)
- *
+ * @author Prateek Kumar Oraon (...)
+ * 

  *         An implementation of Rabin-Karp string matching algorithm
  *         Program will simply end if there is no match
  */
@@ -30,8 +30,8 @@ public static List search(String text, String pattern, int q) {
         int t = 0;
         int p = 0;
         int h = 1;
-        int j = 0;
-        int i = 0;
+        int j;
+        int i;
 
         if (m > n) {
             return new ArrayList<>();
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
index 84d4fd8f72ce..49cdd758247b 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveDuplicateFromString.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
 /**
- * @author Varun Upadhyay (https://github.com/varunu28)
+ * @author Varun Upadhyay (...)
  */
 public final class RemoveDuplicateFromString {
     private RemoveDuplicateFromString() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveStars.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveStars.java
index 816311e9da84..fb800ea4d12f 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveStars.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/RemoveStars.java
@@ -3,7 +3,7 @@
 /**
  * Removes characters affected by '*' in a string.
  * Each '*' deletes the closest non-star character to its left.
- *
+ * 

  * Example:
  * Input: leet**cod*e
  * Output: lecoe
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ public static String removeStars(String s) {
 
         for (char c : s.toCharArray()) {
             if (c == '*') {
-                if (result.length() > 0) {
+                if (!result.isEmpty()) {
                     result.deleteCharAt(result.length() - 1);
                 }
             } else {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java
index 85bc0e4db641..3051013fdfef 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/StringCompression.java
@@ -1,9 +1,9 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.strings;
 
 /**
- * References : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-length_encoding
+ * References : ...
  * String compression algorithm deals with encoding the string, that is, shortening the size of the string
- * @author Swarga-codes (https://github.com/Swarga-codes)
+ * @author Swarga-codes (...)
  */
 public final class StringCompression {
     private StringCompression() {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java
index dbcac147b658..a2cdf6865b43 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/SuffixArray.java
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@
 /**
  * Suffix Array implementation in Java.
  * Builds an array of indices that represent all suffixes of a string in sorted order.
- * Wikipedia Reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix_array
+ * Wikipedia Reference: ...
  * Author: Nithin U.
- * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ * Github: ...
  */
 
 public final class SuffixArray {
diff --git a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/TopKFrequentWords.java b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/TopKFrequentWords.java
index 106de304cf40..77307fe07674 100644
--- a/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/TopKFrequentWords.java
+++ b/src/main/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/TopKFrequentWords.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@
  * words are ranked in lexicographical ascending order.
  *
  * 
Reference:
- * https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-k_problem
+ * ...
  *
  */
 public final class TopKFrequentWords {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java
index 177163b09ca1..09da281e45d8 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/AllPathsFromSourceToTargetTest.java
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ void testForFirstCase() {
         int[][] a = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {2, 0}, {2, 1}, {1, 3}};
         int source = 2;
         int destination = 3;
-        List> list2 = List.of(List.of(2, 0, 1, 3), List.of(2, 0, 3), List.of(2, 1, 3));
+        List> list2;
         List> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
         list2 = list1;
         assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ void testForSecondCase() {
         int[][] a = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {2, 0}, {2, 1}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {3, 4}, {2, 4}};
         int source = 0;
         int destination = 4;
-        List> list2 = List.of(List.of(0, 1, 3, 4), List.of(0, 1, 4), List.of(0, 2, 1, 3, 4), List.of(0, 2, 1, 4), List.of(0, 2, 4), List.of(0, 3, 4));
+        List> list2;
         List> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
         list2 = list1;
         assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ void testForThirdCase() {
         int[][] a = {{1, 0}, {2, 3}, {0, 4}, {1, 5}, {4, 3}, {0, 2}, {0, 3}, {1, 2}, {0, 5}, {3, 4}, {2, 5}, {2, 4}};
         int source = 1;
         int destination = 5;
-        List> list2 = List.of(List.of(1, 0, 2, 5), List.of(1, 0, 5), List.of(1, 5), List.of(1, 2, 5));
+        List> list2;
         List> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
         list2 = list1;
         assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ void testForFourthcase() {
         int[][] a = {{0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}};
         int source = 0;
         int destination = 2;
-        List> list2 = List.of(List.of(0, 1, 2), List.of(0, 2));
+        List> list2;
         List> list1 = AllPathsFromSourceToTarget.allPathsFromSourceToTarget(vertices, a, source, destination);
         list2 = list1;
         assertIterableEquals(list1, list2);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java
index f3f25933b7a1..98d6d1052848 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/MColoringTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 /**
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 class MColoringTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java
index 54747e5e73a1..77af68c912bf 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/PermutationTest.java
@@ -1,12 +1,11 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import java.util.Arrays;
 import java.util.List;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 public class PermutationTest {
 
     @Test
@@ -24,7 +23,7 @@ void testSingleElement() {
     @Test
     void testMultipleElements() {
         List result = Permutation.permutation(new Integer[] {1, 2});
-        assertTrue(Arrays.equals(result.get(0), new Integer[] {1, 2}));
-        assertTrue(Arrays.equals(result.get(1), new Integer[] {2, 1}));
+        assertArrayEquals(result.get(0), new Integer[]{1, 2});
+        assertArrayEquals(result.get(1), new Integer[]{2, 1});
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/RatInAMazeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/RatInAMazeTest.java
index ecd1f3c4dfae..ad0495e9d7c5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/RatInAMazeTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/RatInAMazeTest.java
@@ -1,12 +1,10 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.backtracking;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import java.util.List;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 class RatInAMazeTest {
 
     @Test
@@ -14,7 +12,7 @@ void testMultiplePathsExist() {
         int[][] maze = {{1, 0, 0, 0}, {1, 1, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 0, 0}, {0, 1, 1, 1}};
 
         List paths = RatInAMaze.findPaths(maze);
-        assertTrue(paths.size() >= 1);
+        assertFalse(paths.isEmpty());
         for (String path : paths) {
             assertTrue(path.chars().allMatch(c -> "DLRU".indexOf(c) >= 0));
         }
@@ -91,7 +89,7 @@ void testAllCellsOpen() {
     void testLargerMazeWithPath() {
         int[][] maze = {{1, 1, 1, 1}, {0, 1, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 1, 1}};
         List paths = RatInAMaze.findPaths(maze);
-        assertTrue(paths.size() >= 1);
+        assertFalse(paths.isEmpty());
         for (String path : paths) {
             assertTrue(path.chars().allMatch(c -> "DLRU".indexOf(c) >= 0), "Path contains invalid characters: " + path);
         }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutationTest.java
index c8e7cd0af0dd..162fdfd46e3e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/backtracking/UniquePermutationTest.java
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ void testUniquePermutationsAbc() {
 
     @Test
     void testEmptyString() {
-        List expected = Arrays.asList("");
+        List expected = List.of("");
         List result = UniquePermutation.generateUniquePermutations("");
         assertEquals(expected, result);
     }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java
index 532f06f79ab3..33b450a61219 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/HighestSetBitTest.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Highest Set Bit
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 class HighestSetBitTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java
index 9bf804373438..c67befb62e6d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Index Of Right Most SetBit
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 class IndexOfRightMostSetBitTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java
index ffd9e4ef176d..43dae8053b2c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/IsPowerTwoTest.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for IsPowerTwo class
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 public class IsPowerTwoTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java
index 4c4d33640ad4..e812d73484b1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/LowestSetBitTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Lowest Set Bit
- * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (...)
  */
 
 public class LowestSetBitTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java
index fe2136fd7f04..16b65107db9c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest.java
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
  * This test class validates the functionality of the
  * NonRepeatingNumberFinder by checking various scenarios.
  *
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 class NonRepeatingNumberFinderTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java
index 0e90ed79f587..5e265f9ff54a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/OnesComplementTest.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Highest Set Bit
- * @author Abhinay Verma(https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma)
+ * @author Abhinay Verma(...)
  */
 public class OnesComplementTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java
index 578acc7af18c..2f74426cbcb5 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/bitmanipulation/TwosComplementTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Highest Set Bit
- * @author Abhinay Verma(https://github.com/Monk-AbhinayVerma)
+ * @author Abhinay Verma(...)
  */
 public class TwosComplementTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java
index 52ecff7cdeee..59c3ec346ea2 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/AutokeyTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class AutokeyCipherTest {
 
-    Autokey autokeyCipher = new Autokey();
+    final Autokey autokeyCipher = new Autokey();
 
     @Test
     void autokeyEncryptTest() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java
index bb1ae5a7e4c2..48d84b8aaad1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BaconianCipherTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class BaconianCipherTest {
 
-    BaconianCipher baconianCipher = new BaconianCipher();
+    final BaconianCipher baconianCipher = new BaconianCipher();
 
     @Test
     void baconianCipherEncryptTest() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java
index ef5e634f781b..d60028d7ebbb 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/BlowfishTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class BlowfishTest {
 
-    Blowfish blowfish = new Blowfish();
+    final Blowfish blowfish = new Blowfish();
 
     @Test
     void testEncrypt() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java
index 7aa41c4cf423..9c7eb8e3e135 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/CaesarTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class CaesarTest {
 
-    Caesar caesar = new Caesar();
+    final Caesar caesar = new Caesar();
 
     @Test
     void caesarEncryptTest() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java
index 8deae45099d6..706fcece6422 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ColumnarTranspositionCipherTest.java
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ public void testDecryption() {
         String encryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(plaintext, keyword);
         String decryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.decrypt();
 
-        assertEquals(plaintext.replaceAll(" ", ""), decryptedText.replaceAll(" ", ""), "The decrypted text should match the original plaintext, ignoring spaces.");
+        assertEquals(plaintext.replace(" ", ""), decryptedText.replace(" ", ""), "The decrypted text should match the original plaintext, ignoring spaces.");
         assertEquals(encryptedText, ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(plaintext, keyword), "The encrypted text should be the same when encrypted again.");
     }
 
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ public void testLongPlainText() {
         String longText = "This is a significantly longer piece of text to test the encryption and decryption capabilities of the Columnar Transposition Cipher. It should handle long strings gracefully.";
         String encryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(longText, keyword);
         String decryptedText = ColumnarTranspositionCipher.decrypt();
-        assertEquals(longText.replaceAll(" ", ""), decryptedText.replaceAll(" ", ""), "The decrypted text should match the original long plaintext, ignoring spaces.");
+        assertEquals(longText.replace(" ", ""), decryptedText.replace(" ", ""), "The decrypted text should match the original long plaintext, ignoring spaces.");
         assertEquals(encryptedText, ColumnarTranspositionCipher.encrypt(longText, keyword), "The encrypted text should be the same when encrypted again.");
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java
index b78ba51f7c3e..a75b44eaa552 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/ECCTest.java
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@
 import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertNotEquals;
 
 import java.math.BigInteger;
+
+import org.jspecify.annotations.NonNull;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 /**
@@ -14,7 +16,7 @@
  * @author xuyang
  */
 public class ECCTest {
-    ECC ecc = new ECC(256); // Generate a 256-bit ECC key pair. Calls generateKeys(bits) to create keys including privateKey and publicKey.
+    final ECC ecc = new ECC(256); // Generate a 256-bit ECC key pair. Calls generateKeys(bits) to create keys including privateKey and publicKey.
 
     /**
      * Test the encryption functionality: convert plaintext to ciphertext and output relevant encryption data.
@@ -55,18 +57,10 @@ void testDecryptWithKnownValues() {
         BigInteger knownPrivateKey = new BigInteger("28635978664199231399690075483195602260051035216440375973817268759912070302603");
 
         // 2. Define the known elliptic curve parameters
-        BigInteger a = new BigInteger("64505295837372135469230827475895976532873592609649950000895066186842236488761"); // Replace with known a value
-        BigInteger b = new BigInteger("89111668838830965251111555638616364203833415376750835901427122343021749874324"); // Replace with known b value
-        BigInteger p = new BigInteger("107276428198310591598877737561885175918069075479103276920057092968372930219921"); // Replace with known p value
-        ECC.ECPoint basePoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("4"), new BigInteger("8")); // Replace with known base point coordinates
-
-        // 3. Create the elliptic curve object
-        ECC.EllipticCurve curve = new ECC.EllipticCurve(a, b, p, basePoint);
+        ECC.EllipticCurve curve = getEllipticCurve();
 
         // 4. Define the known ciphertext containing two ECPoints (R, S)
-        ECC.ECPoint rPoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("103077584019003058745849614420912636617007257617156724481937620119667345237687"), new BigInteger("68193862907937248121971710522760893811582068323088661566426323952783362061817"));
-        ECC.ECPoint sPoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("31932232426664380635434632300383525435115368414929679432313910646436992147798"), new BigInteger("77299754382292904069123203569944908076819220797512755280123348910207308129766"));
-        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText = new ECC.ECPoint[] {rPoint, sPoint};
+        ECC.ECPoint[] cipherText = getEcPoints();
 
         // 5. Create an ECC instance and set the private key and curve parameters
         ecc.setPrivateKey(knownPrivateKey); // Use setter method to set the private key
@@ -80,6 +74,22 @@ void testDecryptWithKnownValues() {
         assertEquals(expectedMessage, decryptedMessage);
     }
 
+    private static ECC.ECPoint @NonNull [] getEcPoints() {
+        ECC.ECPoint rPoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("103077584019003058745849614420912636617007257617156724481937620119667345237687"), new BigInteger("68193862907937248121971710522760893811582068323088661566426323952783362061817"));
+        ECC.ECPoint sPoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("31932232426664380635434632300383525435115368414929679432313910646436992147798"), new BigInteger("77299754382292904069123203569944908076819220797512755280123348910207308129766"));
+        return new ECC.ECPoint[] {rPoint, sPoint};
+    }
+
+    private static ECC.@NonNull EllipticCurve getEllipticCurve() {
+        BigInteger a = new BigInteger("64505295837372135469230827475895976532873592609649950000895066186842236488761"); // Replace with known a value
+        BigInteger b = new BigInteger("89111668838830965251111555638616364203833415376750835901427122343021749874324"); // Replace with known b value
+        BigInteger p = new BigInteger("107276428198310591598877737561885175918069075479103276920057092968372930219921"); // Replace with known p value
+        ECC.ECPoint basePoint = new ECC.ECPoint(new BigInteger("4"), new BigInteger("8")); // Replace with known base point coordinates
+
+        // 3. Create the elliptic curve object
+        return new ECC.EllipticCurve(a, b, p, basePoint);
+    }
+
     /**
      * Test that encrypting the same plaintext with ECC produces different ciphertexts.
      */
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java
index 8121b6177aa9..2ce2edba41d9 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/HillCipherTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class HillCipherTest {
 
-    HillCipher hillCipher = new HillCipher();
+    final HillCipher hillCipher = new HillCipher();
 
     @Test
     void hillCipherEncryptTest() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java
index f593a07d89b7..c39809644595 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/SimpleSubCipherTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class SimpleSubCipherTest {
 
-    SimpleSubCipher simpleSubCipher = new SimpleSubCipher();
+    final SimpleSubCipher simpleSubCipher = new SimpleSubCipher();
 
     @Test
     void simpleSubCipherEncryptTest() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java
index 7f94e5731989..a6d8bbff4b5a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/VigenereTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 class VigenereTest {
 
-    Vigenere vigenere = new Vigenere();
+    final Vigenere vigenere = new Vigenere();
 
     @Test
     void testVigenereEncryptDecrypt() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java
index 6ef478f95358..7e57f9ab55d2 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/ciphers/a5/LFSRTest.java
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ class LFSRTest {
 
     // Represents 0100 1110 0010 1111 0100 1101 0111 1100 0001 1110 1011 1000 1000 1011 0011 1010
     // But we start reverse way because bitset starts from most right (1010)
-    byte[] sessionKeyBytes = {
+    final byte[] sessionKeyBytes = {
         58,
         (byte) 139,
         (byte) 184,
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ class LFSRTest {
     };
 
     // Represents 11 1010 1011 0011 1100 1011
-    byte[] frameCounterBytes = {(byte) 203, (byte) 179, 58};
+    final byte[] frameCounterBytes = {(byte) 203, (byte) 179, 58};
 
     @Test
     void initialize() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java
index b6e10e0d796d..778fc89b9684 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/BurrowsWheelerTransformTest.java
@@ -110,8 +110,8 @@ public void testBWTResultHelpers() {
 
         assertEquals(res1, res1);
         assertEquals(res1, res2);
-        assertNotEquals(res1, null); // obj == null
-        assertNotEquals(res1, new Object()); // different class
+        assertNotEquals(null, res1); // obj == null
+        assertNotEquals(new Object(), res1); // different class
         assertNotEquals(res1, res3); // different transformed
         assertNotEquals(res1, res4); // different originalIndex
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java
index da1fd8d23318..350231197383 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/compression/LZ78Test.java
@@ -1,12 +1,11 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.compression;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import java.util.List;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 class LZ78Test {
 
     @Test
@@ -153,7 +152,7 @@ void testDictionaryBuilding() {
 
         // Verify first few tokens
         // Expected pattern: (0,a)(1,b)(2,a)(3,b) building dictionary 1:a, 2:ab, 3:aa, 4:aab
-        assertTrue(compressed.size() > 0);
+        assertFalse(compressed.isEmpty());
         assertEquals(0, compressed.getFirst().index()); // First char always has index 0
     }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java
index fbc220c0ca95..a81e4e958bcc 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/conversions/Base64Test.java
@@ -10,9 +10,9 @@
 
 /**
  * Test cases for Base64 encoding and decoding.
- *
+ * 

  * Author: Nithin U.
- * Github: https://github.com/NithinU2802
+ * Githhttps://github.com/NithinU2802
  */
 
 class Base64Test {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java
index 69af422e7175..058478adb6ac 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/buffers/CircularBufferTest.java
@@ -156,8 +156,7 @@ void testInterleavedPutAndGet() {
     void testRepeatedNullInsertionThrows() {
         CircularBuffer buffer = new CircularBuffer<>(5);
         for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
-            int finalI = i;
-            org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> buffer.put(null), "Iteration: " + finalI);
+            org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> buffer.put(null), "Iteration: " + i);
         }
     }
     @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java
index 5f250e6ca3fd..5542df0607c0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/FIFOCacheTest.java
@@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ void testReturnsCorrectStrategyInstance() {
     void testDefaultStrategyIsImmediateEvictionStrategy() {
         FIFOCache newCache = new FIFOCache.Builder(5).defaultTTL(1000).build();
 
-        Assertions.assertTrue(newCache.getEvictionStrategy() instanceof FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy, "Default strategy should be ImmediateEvictionStrategyStrategy");
+        Assertions.assertInstanceOf(FIFOCache.ImmediateEvictionStrategy.class, newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Default strategy should be ImmediateEvictionStrategyStrategy");
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java
index 100c73ea2a5b..f5ca7285bc5f 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/caches/RRCacheTest.java
@@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ void testReturnsCorrectStrategyInstance() {
     void testDefaultStrategyIsNoEviction() {
         RRCache newCache = new RRCache.Builder(5).defaultTTL(1000).build();
 
-        Assertions.assertTrue(newCache.getEvictionStrategy() instanceof RRCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy, "Default strategy should be NoEvictionStrategy");
+        Assertions.assertInstanceOf(RRCache.PeriodicEvictionStrategy.class, newCache.getEvictionStrategy(), "Default strategy should be NoEvictionStrategy");
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java
index aa8e6beeb3db..d8a777ed7b83 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/EdmondsBlossomAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Unit tests for the EdmondsBlossomAlgorithm class.
- *
+ * 

  * These tests ensure that the Edmonds' Blossom Algorithm implementation
  * works as expected for various graph structures, returning the correct
  * maximum matching.
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java
index 7291cd6c319c..5c2ccd8c9e2e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/graphs/KruskalTest.java
@@ -10,17 +10,16 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
-@SuppressWarnings({"rawtypes", "unchecked"})
+@SuppressWarnings({"unchecked"})
 public class KruskalTest {
 
     private Kruskal kruskal;
-    private HashSet[] graph;
 
     @BeforeEach
     public void setUp() {
         kruskal = new Kruskal();
         int n = 7;
-        graph = new HashSet[n];
+        HashSet[] graph = new HashSet[n];
         for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
             graph[i] = new HashSet<>();
         }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueueTest.java
index 8d8c4e1db6bd..4e4cebf1729b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueueTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/heaps/IndexedPriorityQueueTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Tests for {@link IndexedPriorityQueue}.
- *
+ * 

  * Notes:
  * - We mainly use a Node class with a mutable "prio" field to test changeKey/decreaseKey/increaseKey.
  * - The queue is a min-heap, so smaller "prio" means higher priority.
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ public String toString() {
     /** Same as Node but overrides equals/hashCode to simulate "duplicate-equals" scenario. */
     static class NodeWithEquals {
         final String id;
-        int prio;
+        final int prio;
 
         NodeWithEquals(String id, int prio) {
             this.id = id;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java
index 4e86f317c2e8..323470bc7917 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/QuickSortLinkedListTest.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 /**
  * Test cases for QuickSortLinkedList.
  * Author: Prabhat-Kumar-42
- * GitHub: https://github.com/Prabhat-Kumar-42
+ * GitHub: ...
  */
 public class QuickSortLinkedListTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java
index 76b7ab063de4..4d245de9bb9d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/ReverseKGroupTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test cases for Reverse K Group LinkedList
- * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 public class ReverseKGroupTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java
index c476ad1b0203..1d098f7c0d66 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test cases for RotateSinglyLinkedLists.
- * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * Author: Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 public class RotateSinglyLinkedListsTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java
index fde52b982385..daf9d8b31a98 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/lists/SinglyLinkedListTest.java
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@ public class SinglyLinkedListTest {
 
     /**
      * Initialize a list with natural order values with pre-defined length
-     * @param length
      * @return linked list with pre-defined number of nodes
      */
     private SinglyLinkedList createSampleList(int length) {
@@ -112,11 +111,10 @@ void reverseList() {
 
         // Reversing the LinkedList using reverseList() method and storing the head of the reversed
         // linkedlist in a head node The reversed linkedlist will be 4->3->2->1->null
-        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListIter(list.getHead());
 
         // Recording the Nodes after reversing the LinkedList
-        SinglyLinkedListNode firstNode = head; // 4
-        SinglyLinkedListNode secondNode = firstNode.next; // 3
+        // 4
+        SinglyLinkedListNode secondNode = list.reverseListIter(list.getHead()).next; // 3
         SinglyLinkedListNode thirdNode = secondNode.next; // 2
         SinglyLinkedListNode fourthNode = thirdNode.next; // 1
 
@@ -125,7 +123,7 @@ void reverseList() {
         assertEquals(1, fourthNode.value);
         assertEquals(2, thirdNode.value);
         assertEquals(3, secondNode.value);
-        assertEquals(4, firstNode.value);
+        assertEquals(4, list.reverseListIter(list.getHead()).value);
     }
 
     // Test to check whether implemented reverseList() method handles NullPointer Exception for
@@ -151,10 +149,9 @@ void reverseListTest() {
 
         // Reversing the LinkedList using reverseList() method and storing the head of the reversed
         // linkedlist in a head node
-        SinglyLinkedListNode head = list.reverseListIter(list.getHead());
 
         // Storing the head in a temp variable, so that we cannot loose the track of head
-        SinglyLinkedListNode temp = head;
+        SinglyLinkedListNode temp = list.reverseListIter(list.getHead());
 
         int i = 20; // This is for the comparison of values of nodes of the reversed linkedlist
         // Checking whether the reverseList() method performed its task
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/ThreadSafeQueueTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/ThreadSafeQueueTest.java
index 4c038c05b167..a9e6dc7ecb6a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/ThreadSafeQueueTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/queues/ThreadSafeQueueTest.java
@@ -7,6 +7,8 @@
 import java.util.concurrent.Executors;
 import java.util.concurrent.TimeUnit;
 import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
+
+import org.jspecify.annotations.NonNull;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
@@ -144,6 +146,17 @@ public void testMultipleProducersSingleConsumer() throws InterruptedException {
             });
         }
 
+        Thread consumerThread = getThread(results, totalItems, queue);
+
+        Assertions.assertTrue(doneLatch.await(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+        consumerThread.join(5000);
+
+        Assertions.assertEquals(totalItems, results.size());
+        executor.shutdown();
+        Assertions.assertTrue(executor.awaitTermination(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+    }
+
+    private static @NonNull Thread getThread(List results, int totalItems, ThreadSafeQueue queue) {
         Thread consumerThread = new Thread(() -> {
             try {
                 while (results.size() < totalItems) {
@@ -159,13 +172,7 @@ public void testMultipleProducersSingleConsumer() throws InterruptedException {
             }
         });
         consumerThread.start();
-
-        Assertions.assertTrue(doneLatch.await(10, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
-        consumerThread.join(5000);
-
-        Assertions.assertEquals(totalItems, results.size());
-        executor.shutdown();
-        Assertions.assertTrue(executor.awaitTermination(5, TimeUnit.SECONDS));
+        return consumerThread;
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java
index 8a89382211ba..5f1247c63acd 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/stacks/NodeStackTest.java
@@ -1,13 +1,11 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.datastructures.stacks;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.DisplayName;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 class NodeStackTest {
 
     private NodeStack intStack;
@@ -244,7 +242,7 @@ void testToString() {
 
         String stackString = intStack.toString();
         // Basic check that toString doesn't throw exception and returns something
-        assertTrue(stackString != null, "toString should not return null");
-        assertTrue(stackString.length() > 0, "toString should return non-empty string");
+        assertNotNull(stackString, "toString should not return null");
+        assertFalse(stackString.isEmpty(), "toString should return non-empty string");
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java
index 5ec0080c5fb8..33a15ba2db84 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/BSTRecursiveGenericTest.java
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@
 /**
  * Unit tests for BSTRecursiveGeneric class.
  * Covers insertion, deletion, search, traversal, sorting, and display.
- *
+ * 

  * Author: Udaya Krishnan M
- * GitHub: https://github.com/UdayaKrishnanM/
+ * GitHhttps://github.com/UdayaKrishnanM/
  */
 class BSTRecursiveGenericTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java
index 62b86da214db..d7427b9ea898 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/datastructures/trees/QuadTreeTest.java
@@ -5,9 +5,9 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 public class QuadTreeTest {
-    int quadTreeCapacity = 4;
-    BoundingBox boundingBox = new BoundingBox(new Point(0, 0), 500);
-    QuadTree quadTree = new QuadTree(boundingBox, quadTreeCapacity);
+    final int quadTreeCapacity = 4;
+    final BoundingBox boundingBox = new BoundingBox(new Point(0, 0), 500);
+    final QuadTree quadTree = new QuadTree(boundingBox, quadTreeCapacity);
 
     @Test
     public void testNullPointInsertIntoQuadTree() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java
index 1ec45a863e1a..36ca5128f561 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/divideandconquer/StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 class StrassenMatrixMultiplicationTest {
 
-    StrassenMatrixMultiplication smm = new StrassenMatrixMultiplication();
+    final StrassenMatrixMultiplication smm = new StrassenMatrixMultiplication();
 
     // Strassen Matrix Multiplication can only be allplied to matrices of size 2^n
     // and has to be a Square Matrix
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java
index e26606ef98a9..ab4ea8d64039 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KadaneAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ void testMaxSumWithPositiveValues() {
     void testMaxSumWithMixedValues() {
         // Test with mixed positive and negative numbers
         int[] input = {1, -2, 3, 4, -1, 2, 1, -5, 4};
-        int expectedMaxSum = 3 + 4 + -1 + 2 + 1; // max subarray is [3, 4, -1, 2, 1]
+        int expectedMaxSum = 9; // max subarray is [3, 4, -1, 2, 1]
         assertTrue(KadaneAlgorithm.maxSum(input, expectedMaxSum));
     }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java
index 3545eb2667ed..5225961bd382 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/dynamicprogramming/KnapsackMemoizationTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 public class KnapsackMemoizationTest {
 
-    KnapsackMemoization knapsackMemoization = new KnapsackMemoization();
+    final KnapsackMemoization knapsackMemoization = new KnapsackMemoization();
 
     @Test
     void test1() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java
index 612d09561b7b..0edf88769e30 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/HierholzerEulerianPathTest.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Unit tests for {@link HierholzerEulerianPath}.
- *
+ * 

  * This test suite validates Hierholzer's Algorithm implementation
  * for finding Eulerian Paths and Circuits in directed graphs.
  *
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagnerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagnerTest.java
index 894d99687d1d..a83737ad7c6f 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagnerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/graph/StoerWagnerTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Unit tests for the StoerWagner global minimum cut algorithm.
- *
+ * 

  * These tests verify correctness of the implementation across
  * several graph configurations: simple, complete, disconnected,
  * and small edge cases.
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java
index 893ca02ed8a3..9d8c84753e38 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/greedyalgorithms/BinaryAdditionTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 public class BinaryAdditionTest {
 
-    BinaryAddition binaryAddition = new BinaryAddition();
+    final BinaryAddition binaryAddition = new BinaryAddition();
 
     @Test
     public void testEqualLengthNoCarry() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java
index 064f71a17c12..c7e9f19bf089 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/CohenSutherlandTest.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@
 class CohenSutherlandTest {
 
     // Define the clipping window (1.0, 1.0) to (10.0, 10.0)
-    CohenSutherland cs = new CohenSutherland(1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0);
+    final CohenSutherland cs = new CohenSutherland(1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0);
 
     @Test
     void testLineCompletelyInside() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java
index 1c48cd106572..7a86c07165b1 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/lineclipping/LiangBarskyTest.java
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
  */
 class LiangBarskyTest {
 
-    LiangBarsky lb = new LiangBarsky(1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0);
+    final LiangBarsky lb = new LiangBarsky(1.0, 1.0, 10.0, 10.0);
 
     @Test
     void testLineCompletelyInside() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java
index 5ae5ac70b1df..97d770c0aea0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/EulerMethodTest.java
@@ -14,11 +14,11 @@
 class EulerMethodTest {
 
     private static class EulerFullTestCase {
-        double[] params;
-        BiFunction equation;
-        int expectedSize;
-        double[] expectedFirstPoint;
-        double[] expectedLastPoint;
+        final double[] params;
+        final BiFunction equation;
+        final int expectedSize;
+        final double[] expectedFirstPoint;
+        final double[] expectedLastPoint;
 
         EulerFullTestCase(double[] params, BiFunction equation, int expectedSize, double[] expectedFirstPoint, double[] expectedLastPoint) {
             this.params = params;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java
index 5cfb304ae471..69fb60648e8c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/FibonacciJavaStreamsTest.java
@@ -66,6 +66,6 @@ private static void checkElement(BigDecimal index, BigDecimal expected) {
 
         // then
         Assertions.assertTrue(result.isPresent());
-        Assertions.assertEquals(result.get(), expected);
+        Assertions.assertEquals(expected, result.get());
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java
index a3cd7500b30c..ce020041dbd9 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/KaprekarNumbersTest.java
@@ -138,7 +138,7 @@ void testKaprekarNumbersInLargeRange() {
     @Test
     void testKaprekarNumbersInSingleElementRange() {
         List result = KaprekarNumbers.kaprekarNumberInRange(9, 9);
-        List expected = Arrays.asList(9L);
+        List expected = List.of(9L);
         assertEquals(expected, result);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java
index 853fdbea3963..b3d558c56fba 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/MeansTest.java
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ void testArithmeticMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
 
     @Test
     void testArithmeticMeanSingleNumber() {
-        List numbers = Arrays.asList(2.5);
+        List numbers = List.of(2.5);
         assertEquals(2.5, Means.arithmetic(numbers), EPSILON);
     }
 
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ void testGeometricMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
 
     @Test
     void testGeometricMeanSingleNumber() {
-        Set numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(Arrays.asList(2.5));
+        Set numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(List.of(2.5));
         assertEquals(2.5, Means.geometric(numbers), EPSILON);
     }
 
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ void testHarmonicMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
 
     @Test
     void testHarmonicMeanSingleNumber() {
-        LinkedHashSet numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(Arrays.asList(2.5));
+        LinkedHashSet numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(List.of(2.5));
         assertEquals(2.5, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
     }
 
@@ -155,7 +155,7 @@ void testHarmonicMeanMultipleNumbers() {
     @Test
     void testHarmonicMeanThreeNumbers() {
         List numbers = Arrays.asList(1.0, 2.0, 4.0);
-        double expected = 3.0 / (1.0 / 1.0 + 1.0 / 2.0 + 1.0 / 4.0);
+        double expected = 3.0 / (1.0 + 1.0 / 2.0 + 1.0 / 4.0);
         assertEquals(expected, Means.harmonic(numbers), EPSILON);
     }
 
@@ -183,7 +183,7 @@ void testQuadraticMeanThrowsExceptionForEmptyList() {
 
     @Test
     void testQuadraticMeanSingleNumber() {
-        LinkedHashSet numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(Arrays.asList(2.5));
+        LinkedHashSet numbers = new LinkedHashSet<>(List.of(2.5));
         assertEquals(2.5, Means.quadratic(numbers), EPSILON);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java
index 705cc6672818..14e946d40c6b 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/PowerUsingRecursionTest.java
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Power using Recursion
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 class PowerUsingRecursionTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java
index 5d491a493ee7..172b862dc9e0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SieveOfEratosthenesTest.java
@@ -29,7 +29,7 @@ void testPrimesUpTo30() {
 
     @Test
     void testPrimesUpTo2() {
-        List expected = Arrays.asList(2);
+        List expected = List.of(2);
         assertEquals(expected, SieveOfEratosthenes.findPrimes(2));
     }
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java
index 067b68962bdb..2be52072c6b0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod.java
@@ -6,17 +6,17 @@
 public class SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonTestMethod {
 
     @Test
-    void testfor1() {
+    void test_for_one() {
         Assertions.assertEquals(1, SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.squareRoot(1));
     }
 
     @Test
-    void testfor2() {
+    void test_for_two() {
         Assertions.assertEquals(1.414213562373095, SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.squareRoot(2));
     }
 
     @Test
-    void testfor625() {
+    void test_for_six_hundred_twenty_five() {
         Assertions.assertEquals(25.0, SquareRootWithNewtonRaphsonMethod.squareRoot(625));
     }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java
index 1eab73c67642..dcd5f628457a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/maths/SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest.java
@@ -5,7 +5,7 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 public class SumWithoutArithmeticOperatorsTest {
-    SumWithoutArithmeticOperators obj = new SumWithoutArithmeticOperators();
+    final SumWithoutArithmeticOperators obj = new SumWithoutArithmeticOperators();
 
     @Test
     void addZerotoZero() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java
index c4a74af0ba8b..f63eef86bc2d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/MedianOfRunningArrayTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Median Of Running Array Problem.
- * @author Ansh Shah (https://github.com/govardhanshah456)
+ * @author Ansh Shah (...)
  */
 
 public class MedianOfRunningArrayTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java
index 86e73ac0547c..48cf84c4c2bb 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/misc/TwoSumProblemTest.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test case for Two sum Problem.
- * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (https://github.com/BamaCharanChhandogi)
+ * @author Bama Charan Chhandogi (...)
  */
 
 public class TwoSumProblemTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java
index 296cf1ca1c04..483a99266c0e 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/BestFitCPUTest.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ class BestFitCPUTest {
     int[] sizeOfProcesses;
     ArrayList memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
     ArrayList testMemAllocation;
-    MemoryManagementAlgorithms bestFit = new BestFitCPU();
+    final MemoryManagementAlgorithms bestFit = new BestFitCPU();
 
     @Test
     void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java
index 57b6e189b116..5e9e65e363ff 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/FirstFitCPUTest.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ class FirstFitCPUTest {
     int[] sizeOfProcesses;
     ArrayList memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
     ArrayList testMemAllocation;
-    MemoryManagementAlgorithms firstFit = new FirstFitCPU();
+    final MemoryManagementAlgorithms firstFit = new FirstFitCPU();
 
     @Test
     void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java
index 1a42f1815a96..a6662495742c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthKTest.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test class for {@link MaximumSumOfDistinctSubarraysWithLengthK}.
- *
+ * 

  * This class contains comprehensive test cases to verify the correctness of the
  * maximum subarray sum algorithm with distinct elements constraint.
  */
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@ void testMaximumSubarraySum(long expected, int k, int[] arr) {
 
     /**
      * Provides test cases for the parameterized test.
-     *
+     * 

      * Test cases cover:
      * - Normal cases with distinct and duplicate elements
      * - Edge cases (empty array, k = 0, k > array length)
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java
index 75fb3ab7c261..f14b81806e19 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/NextFitTest.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ class NextFitCPUTest {
     int[] sizeOfProcesses;
     ArrayList memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
     ArrayList testMemAllocation;
-    MemoryManagementAlgorithms nextFit = new NextFit();
+    final MemoryManagementAlgorithms nextFit = new NextFit();
 
     @Test
     void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java
index 4dcdf6b9cf4f..8e7409c0b263 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/PasswordGenTest.java
@@ -1,11 +1,9 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.others;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 public class PasswordGenTest {
 
     @Test
@@ -30,7 +28,7 @@ public void failGenerationWithMinLengthSmallerThanMaxLengthTest() {
     @Test
     public void generatePasswordNonEmptyTest() {
         String tempPassword = PasswordGen.generatePassword(8, 16);
-        assertTrue(tempPassword.length() != 0);
+        assertFalse(tempPassword.isEmpty());
     }
 
     @Test
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java
index eb69f6056132..104fd1eae6ce 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/others/WorstFitCPUTest.java
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ class WorstFitCPUTest {
     int[] sizeOfProcesses;
     ArrayList memAllocation = new ArrayList<>();
     ArrayList testMemAllocation;
-    MemoryManagementAlgorithms worstFit = new WorstFitCPU();
+    final MemoryManagementAlgorithms worstFit = new WorstFitCPU();
 
     @Test
     void testFitForUseOfOneBlock() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java
index 9d7e11777983..bfa80be4e6b0 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/physics/GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest.java
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
 
 /**
  * JUnit test class for GroundToGroundProjectileMotion
- *
+ * 

  * Contains unit tests for projectile motion calculations using JUnit 5
  */
 public class GroundToGroundProjectileMotionTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java
index 0804e9bfff25..d1ff1634c0ad 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/recursion/DiceThrowerTest.java
@@ -1,14 +1,12 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.recursion;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertThrows;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import java.io.ByteArrayOutputStream;
 import java.io.PrintStream;
 import java.util.List;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 /**
  * Test class for DiceThrower
  *
@@ -76,7 +74,7 @@ void testTargetSix() {
     void testTargetSeven() {
         List result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(7);
         // Should include combinations like 61, 52, 43, 331, 322, 2221, etc.
-        assertTrue(result.size() > 0);
+        assertFalse(result.isEmpty());
         assertTrue(result.contains("61"));
         assertTrue(result.contains("16"));
         assertTrue(result.contains("52"));
@@ -86,7 +84,7 @@ void testTargetSeven() {
     @Test
     void testLargerTarget() {
         List result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(10);
-        assertTrue(result.size() > 0);
+        assertFalse(result.isEmpty());
         // All results should sum to 10
         for (String combination : result) {
             int sum = 0;
@@ -212,7 +210,7 @@ void testEdgeCaseTargetFive() {
     @Test
     void testTargetGreaterThanSix() {
         List result = DiceThrower.getDiceCombinations(8);
-        assertTrue(result.size() > 0);
+        assertFalse(result.isEmpty());
 
         // Verify some expected combinations
         assertTrue(result.contains("62"));
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
index d28dcfeaaea3..738dcc15762c 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/scheduling/NonPreemptivePrioritySchedulingTest.java
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ public void testCalculateAverageWaitingTime() {
             new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(2, 0, 5, 1), new NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process(3, 0, 8, 3)};
         NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.Process[] executionOrder = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.scheduleProcesses(processes);
 
-        double expectedAvgWaitingTime = (0 + 5 + 15) / 3.0; // Waiting times: 0 for P2, 5 for P1, 15 for P3
+        double expectedAvgWaitingTime = ( 5 + 15) / 3.0; // Waiting times: 0 for P2, 5 for P1, 15 for P3
         double actualAvgWaitingTime = NonPreemptivePriorityScheduling.calculateAverageWaitingTime(processes, executionOrder);
 
         assertEquals(expectedAvgWaitingTime, actualAvgWaitingTime, 0.01, "Average waiting time should be calculated correctly.");
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java
index 2017c11dfb3c..a1babc031f6f 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BM25InvertedIndexTest.java
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Test Cases for Inverted Index with BM25
- * @author Prayas Kumar (https://github.com/prayas7102)
+ * @author Prayas Kumar (...)
  */
 
 class BM25InvertedIndexTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java
index dec2c86de9c7..3a5b5a2c6d3a 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/searches/BinarySearch2dArrayTest.java
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ public void binarySearch2dArrayTestOneRow() {
         int target = 2;
 
         // Assert that the requirement, that the array only has one row, is fulfilled.
-        assertEquals(arr.length, 1);
+        assertEquals(1, arr.length);
         int[] ans = BinarySearch2dArray.binarySearch(arr, target);
         System.out.println(Arrays.toString(ans));
         assertEquals(0, ans[0]);
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java
index 8638a707a3e2..e95200a00198 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 /**
  * Unit tests for the LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharacters class.
  *
- * @author  (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ * @author  (...)
  */
 public class LongestSubstringWithoutRepeatingCharactersTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
index aa3c2eae3294..bea81b497070 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 /**
  * Unit tests for the MaxSumKSizeSubarray class.
  *
- * @author Your Name (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ * @author Your Name (...)
  */
 class MaxSumKSizeSubarrayTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
index 4656c8baf327..68b22a4a03f8 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 /**
  * Unit tests for the MinSumKSizeSubarray class.
  *
- * @author Rashi Dashore (https://github.com/rashi07dashore)
+ * @author Rashi Dashore (...)
  */
 class MinSumKSizeSubarrayTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java
index 2c1534f4bfe6..6b0d9a140b50 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/slidingwindow/MinimumWindowSubstringTest.java
@@ -6,11 +6,7 @@
 
 /**
  * Finds the minimum window substring in {@code s} that contains all characters of {@code t}.
- *
- * @param s The input string to search within
- * @param t The string with required characters
- * @return The minimum window substring, or empty string if not found
- * @author  (https://github.com/Chiefpatwal)
+ * @author  (...)
  */
 public class MinimumWindowSubstringTest {
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java
index 8cb401802c4b..5d7163b03e41 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/AdaptiveMergeSortTest.java
@@ -92,8 +92,8 @@ public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
      * Custom Comparable class for testing.
      **/
     static class Person implements Comparable {
-        String name;
-        int age;
+        final String name;
+        final int age;
 
         Person(String name, int age) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java
index dc4f9e1c25bb..6a2697d8c736 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BogoSortTest.java
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 
 public class BogoSortTest {
 
-    private BogoSort bogoSort = new BogoSort();
+    private final BogoSort bogoSort = new BogoSort();
 
     @Test
     public void bogoSortEmptyArray() {
@@ -101,8 +101,8 @@ public void bogoSortMixedCaseStrings() {
      * Custom Comparable class for testing.
      **/
     static class Person implements Comparable {
-        String name;
-        int age;
+        final String name;
+        final int age;
 
         Person(String name, int age) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java
index 3b99dca13b06..a9a0b7462686 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/BubbleSortTest.java
@@ -6,12 +6,12 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 /**
- * @author Aitor Fidalgo (https://github.com/aitorfi)
+ * @author Aitor Fidalgo (...)
  * @see BubbleSort
  */
 public class BubbleSortTest {
 
-    private BubbleSort bubbleSort = new BubbleSort();
+    private final BubbleSort bubbleSort = new BubbleSort();
 
     @Test
     public void bubbleSortEmptyArray() {
@@ -129,8 +129,8 @@ public void bubbleSortMixedCaseStrings() {
      * Custom Comparable class for testing.
      **/
     static class Person implements Comparable {
-        String name;
-        int age;
+        final String name;
+        final int age;
 
         Person(String name, int age) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java
index 1d875d1fad0d..960483898fcf 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/GnomeSortTest.java
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@
 
 public class GnomeSortTest {
 
-    private GnomeSort gnomeSort = new GnomeSort();
+    private final GnomeSort gnomeSort = new GnomeSort();
 
     @Test
     @DisplayName("GnomeSort empty Array")
@@ -122,8 +122,8 @@ public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
      * Custom Comparable class for testing.
      **/
     static class Person implements Comparable {
-        String name;
-        int age;
+        final String name;
+        final int age;
 
         Person(String name, int age) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java
index 32a2a807295b..4ec5f0470916 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/InsertionSortTest.java
@@ -149,8 +149,8 @@ public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
      * Custom Comparable class for testing.
      **/
     static class Person implements Comparable {
-        String name;
-        int age;
+        final String name;
+        final int age;
 
         Person(String name, int age) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java
index 09ef8014cec1..b5cee8a40963 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/OddEvenSortTest.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 /**
- * @author Tabbygray (https://github.com/Tabbygray)
+ * @author Tabbygray (...)
  * @see OddEvenSort
  */
 
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java
index fca57626b75f..f3bfec21263d 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/QuickSortTest.java
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.sorts;
 
 /**
- * @author Akshay Dubey (https://github.com/itsAkshayDubey)
+ * @author Akshay Dubey (...)
  * @see QuickSort
  */
 class QuickSortTest extends SortingAlgorithmTest {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java
index 5fbdf8477092..6810639fddea 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SlowSortTest.java
@@ -6,13 +6,13 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 /**
- * @author Rebecca Velez (https://github.com/rebeccavelez)
+ * @author Rebecca Velez (...)
  * @see SlowSort
  */
 
 public class SlowSortTest {
 
-    private SlowSort slowSort = new SlowSort();
+    private final SlowSort slowSort = new SlowSort();
 
     @Test
     public void slowSortEmptyArray() {
@@ -114,8 +114,8 @@ public void testSortMixedCaseStrings() {
      * Custom Comparable class for testing.
      **/
     static class Person implements Comparable {
-        String name;
-        int age;
+        final String name;
+        final int age;
 
         Person(String name, int age) {
             this.name = name;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java
index 43de55018071..d1bb15b70fef 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/SortingAlgorithmTest.java
@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@ public void shouldHandleListWithNullValues() {
     }
 
     static class CustomObject implements Comparable {
-        int value;
+        final int value;
 
         CustomObject(int value) {
             this.value = value;
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java
index 5fb4c18e953e..6f392e296305 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/sorts/TreeSortTest.java
@@ -5,12 +5,12 @@
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
 /**
- * @author Tabbygray (https://github.com/Tabbygray)
+ * @author Tabbygray (...)
  * @see TreeSort
  */
 
 public class TreeSortTest {
-    private TreeSort treeSort = new TreeSort();
+    private final TreeSort treeSort = new TreeSort();
 
     @Test
     public void treeSortEmptyArray() {
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java
index 9747af5337e8..bf1f6bbf14dc 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/stacks/SortStackTest.java
@@ -1,12 +1,11 @@
 package com.thealgorithms.stacks;
 
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertEquals;
-import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.assertTrue;
-
 import java.util.Stack;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.BeforeEach;
 import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
 
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
 public class SortStackTest {
 
     private Stack stack;
@@ -251,7 +250,7 @@ public void testOriginalStackIsModified() {
         SortStack.sortStack(stack);
 
         // Verify it's the same object reference
-        assertTrue(stack == originalReference);
+        assertSame(stack, originalReference);
         assertEquals(3, stack.size());
         assertEquals(3, (int) stack.pop());
         assertEquals(2, (int) stack.pop());
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java
index 98f822c4d345..ebb337a618fb 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CharactersSameTest.java
@@ -10,6 +10,6 @@ class CharactersSameTest {
     @ParameterizedTest
     @CsvSource({"aaa, true", "abc, false", "'1  1  1  1', false", "111, true", "'', true", "'           ', true", "'.       ', false", "'a', true", "'  ', true", "'ab', false", "'11111', true", "'ababab', false", "'       ', true", "'+++', true"})
     void testIsAllCharactersSame(String input, boolean expected) {
-        assertEquals(CharactersSame.isAllCharactersSame(input), expected);
+        assertEquals(expected, CharactersSame.isAllCharactersSame(input));
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java
index ba510aa8e995..65e189dbea19 100644
--- a/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java
+++ b/src/test/java/com/thealgorithms/strings/CheckVowelsTest.java
@@ -10,6 +10,6 @@ class CheckVowelsTest {
     @ParameterizedTest
     @CsvSource({"'foo', true", "'bar', true", "'why', false", "'myths', false", "'', false", "'AEIOU', true", "'bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz', false", "'AeIoU', true"})
     void testHasVowels(String input, boolean expected) {
-        assertEquals(CheckVowels.hasVowels(input), expected);
+        assertEquals(expected, CheckVowels.hasVowels(input));
     }
 }